Maternal and paternal stimulation: Mediators of parenting intervention effects on preschoolers' development

Abstract This study examined mothers' and fathers' developmentally stimulating parenting practices (i.e., engagement in play and communication activities) as mediators through which an early parenting intervention improved later cognitive and socioemotional development of 1302 4-year-old children in rural Pakistan. Maternal and paternal stimulation were both reported by the child's mother at 12, 24, and 48 months. Preschoolers' cognitive skills were directly assessed using standardized tests and socioemotional development was based on maternal ratings. Controlling for sociodemographic factors and children's prior levels of development, results revealed that both maternal and paternal stimulation significantly mediated intervention effects on children's longer-term cognitive and socioemotional development. Greater indirect effects were found through maternal than paternal stimulation. Additionally, more stimulation by one parent positively predicted later changes in his or her partner's stimulation. Implications for targeting both mothers' and fathers' parenting behaviors in early childhood interventions and further unpacking these family processes are discussed.

• Publication year

  2019

• Venue

  Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology

• Publication date

  2019-01-01

• Fields of study

  Education, Psychology

• Identifiers
  DOI 10.1016/J.APPDEV.2018.12.001
• External record

  Open on Semantic Scholar

• Source metadata

  Semantic Scholar

• No claims are published for this paper.

• No concepts are published for this paper.

• Stimulation Interventions and Parenting in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Meta-analysis

  2018cited by this paper
• Measuring and understanding social-emotional behaviors in preschoolers from rural Pakistan

  2018cited by this paper
• Adaptation of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-III and lessons learned for evaluating intelligence in low-income settings

  2018cited by this paper
• “His mind will work better with both of us”: a qualitative study on fathers’ roles and coparenting of young children in rural Pakistan

  2018cited by this paper
• FATHER–CHILD INTERACTIONS AT 3 MONTHS AND 24 MONTHS: CONTRIBUTIONS TO CHILDREN'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AT 24 MONTHS

  2017cited by this paper
• Pathways between paternal and maternal education, caregivers’ support for learning, and early child development in 44 low- and middle-income countries

  2017cited by this paper
• Pairing attachment theory and social learning theory in video-feedback intervention to promote positive parenting.

  2017cited by this paper
• “Generally the young mom suffers much: ” Socio‐cultural influences of maternal capabilities and nutrition care in Uganda

  2017cited by this paper
• Nurturing care: promoting early childhood development.

  2017cited by this paper
• Maternal scaffolding and home stimulation: Key mediators of early intervention effects on children's cognitive development.

  2016cited by this paper
• Effects of responsive stimulation and nutrition interventions on children's development and growth at age 4 years in a disadvantaged population in Pakistan: a longitudinal follow-up of a cluster-randomised factorial effectiveness trial.

  2016cited by this paper
• Risk of poor development in young children in low-income and middle-income countries: an estimation and analysis at the global, regional, and country level

  2016cited by this paper
• Child behavior problems: Mothers’ and fathers’ mental health matters today and tomorrow

  2016cited by this paper
• Paternal Stimulation and Early Child Development in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

  2016cited by this paper
• Parent Involvement in Head Start and Children's Development: Indirect Effects Through Parenting.

  2016cited by this paper
• Early Childhood Developmental Status in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: National, Regional, and Global Prevalence Estimates Using Predictive Modeling

  2016cited by this paper
• A Developmental Analysis of Caregiving Modalities Across Infancy in 38 Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

  2015cited by this paper
• Primary Care Parenting Intervention and Its Effects on the Use of Physical Punishment Among Low-Income Parents of Toddlers

  2015cited by this paper
• Effects of a parenting intervention to address maternal psychological wellbeing and child development and growth in rural Uganda: a community-based, cluster randomised trial.

  2015cited by this paper
• Global health and development in early childhood.

  2015cited by this paper
• Mothers' and Fathers' Sensitivity and Children's Cognitive Development in Low-Income, Rural Families.

  2015cited by this paper
• Who Are the Gatekeepers? Predictors of Maternal Gatekeeping

  2015cited by this paper
• Poverty, physical stature, and cognitive skills: Mechanisms underlying children's school enrollment in Zambia.

  2015cited by this paper
• Parenting Skills and Emotional Availability: An RCT

  2015cited by this paper
• Integrating a Parenting Intervention With Routine Primary Health Care: A Cluster Randomized Trial

  2015cited by this paper
• Linear Growth and Child Development in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Meta-Analysis

  2015cited by this paper
• Using the infrastructure of a conditional cash transfer program to deliver a scalable integrated early child development program in Colombia: cluster randomized controlled trial

  2014cited by this paper
• Practitioner Review: Engaging fathers – recommendations for a game change in parenting interventions based on a systematic review of the global evidence

  2014cited by this paper
• Cognitive Deficit and Poverty in the First 5 Years of Childhood in Bangladesh

  2014cited by this paper
• Effect of integrated responsive stimulation and nutrition interventions in the Lady Health Worker programme in Pakistan on child development, growth, and health outcomes: a cluster-randomised factorial effectiveness trial.

  2014cited by this paper
• Understanding care and feeding practices: building blocks for a sustainable intervention in India and Pakistan

  2014cited by this paper
• "My Baby & Me": effects of an early, comprehensive parenting intervention on at-risk mothers and their children.

  2014cited by this paper
• Low-income minority mothers' and fathers' reading and children's interest: Longitudinal contributions to children's receptive vocabulary skills.

  2014cited by this paper
• Father Involvement During Early Childhood and Its Association with Children's Early Learning: A Meta-Analysis

  2013cited by this paper
• Association between Maternal sensitivity and Externalizing Behavior from Preschool to Preadolescence.

  2013cited by this paper
• Fathers' contributions to children's social development.

  2013cited by this paper
• Effectiveness of a parenting program in Bangladesh to address early childhood health, growth and development.

  2013cited by this paper
• The effects of a responsive parenting intervention on parent-child interactions during shared book reading.

  2012cited by this paper
• Mothers' and Fathers' Parenting Quality and Toddlers' Interactive Behaviours in Dyadic and Triadic Family Contexts

  2012cited by this paper
• Cognitive and socioemotional caregiving in developing countries.

  2012cited by this paper
• Effects of psychosocial stimulation on improving home environment and child-rearing practices: results from a community-based trial among severely malnourished children in Bangladesh

  2012cited by this paper
• Do early father–infant interactions predict the onset of externalising behaviours in young children? Findings from a longitudinal cohort study

  2012cited by this paper
• Bidirectional Associations Among Sensitive Parenting, Language Development, and Social Competence.

  2012cited by this paper
• Behaviour change communication targeting four health behaviours in developing countries: a review of change techniques.

  2012cited by this paper
• Inequality in early childhood: risk and protective factors for early child development.

  2011cited by this paper
• Strategies for reducing inequalities and improving developmental outcomes for young children in low-income and middle-income countries.

  2011cited by this paper
• Influence of mother, father, and child risk on parenting and children's cognitive and social behaviors.

  2011cited by this paper
• Early Childhood Stimulation Benefits Adult Competence and Reduces Violent Behavior

  2011cited by this paper
• A comparison of maternal sensitivity and verbal stimulation as unique predictors of infant social-emotional and cognitive development.

  2010cited by this paper
• When fathers' supportiveness matters most: maternal and paternal parenting and children's school readiness.

  2010cited by this paper
• Item Response Theory

  2010cited by this paper
• The effect of psychosocial stimulation on cognition and behaviour at 6 years in a cohort of term, low‐birthweight Jamaican children

  2010cited by this paper
• Fathers' involvement and children's developmental outcomes: a systematic review of longitudinal studies

  2008cited by this paper
• Maternal gatekeeping, coparenting quality, and fathering behavior in families with infants.

  2008cited by this paper
• Maternal Gate Closing and Gate Opening in Postdivorce Families

  2008cited by this paper
• Involvement Among Resident Fathers and Links to Infant Cognitive Outcomes

  2008cited by this paper
• Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models

  2008cited by this paper
• Interdependence of parenting of mothers and fathers of infants.

  2008cited by this paper
• Synchrony in the triad: a microlevel process model of coparenting and parent-child interactions.

  2008cited by this paper
• “Care for Development” Intervention in Rural China: A Prospective Follow-up Study

  2007cited by this paper
• Fathers' Influence on Their Children's Cognitive and Emotional Development: From Toddlers to Pre-K

  2007cited by this paper
• Understanding the limitations of global fit assessment in structural equation modeling

  2007cited by this paper
• Attachment and sensitivity in family context: the roles of parent and infant gender

  2006cited by this paper
• Does Father Care Mean Fathers Share?

  2006cited by this paper
• Mother and infant talk about mental states relates to desire language and emotion understanding.

  2006cited by this paper
• Responsive parenting: establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills.

  2006cited by this paper
• WHO Child Growth Standards based on length/height, weight and age

  2006cited by this paper
• Paternal depression in the postnatal period and child development: a prospective population study.

  2005cited by this paper
• Placing Early Attachment Experiences in Developmental Context: The Minnesota Longitudinal Study.

  2005cited by this paper
• Fathers' and mothers' parenting behavior and beliefs as predictors of children's social adjustment in the transition to school.

  2005cited by this paper
• Fathers and mothers at play with their 2- and 3-year-olds: contributions to language and cognitive development.

  2004cited by this paper
• Longitudinal Relations Between Parenting and Child Adjustment in Young Children

  2004cited by this paper
• Early father's and mother's involvement and child's later educational outcomes.

  2004cited by this paper
• Psychosocial intervention improves the development of term low-birth-weight infants.

  2004cited by this paper
• Role of gender in health disparity: the South Asian context

  2004cited by this paper
• Prevalence of father-child rough-and-tumble play and physical aggression in preschool children

  2003cited by this paper
• Missing data techniques for structural equation modeling.

  2003cited by this paper
• Relation of maternal cognitive stimulation, emotional support, and intrusive behavior during Head Start to children's kindergarten cognitive abilities.

  2002cited by this paper
• Beyond Rough and Tumble: Low-Income Fathers' Interactions and Children's Cognitive Development at 24 Months

  2002cited by this paper
• Maternal responsiveness and children's achievement of language milestones.

  2001cited by this paper
• Does the Content of Mothers' Verbal Stimulation Explain Differences in Children's Development of Verbal and Nonverbal Cognitive Skills?

  2000cited by this paper
• Effects of growth restriction in early childhood on growth, IQ, and cognition at age 11 to 12 years and the benefits of nutritional supplementation and psychosocial stimulation.

  2000cited by this paper
• Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis : Conventional criteria versus new alternatives

  1999cited by this paper
• Scaled and Adjusted Restricted Tests in Multi-Sample Analysis of Moment Structures

  1999cited by this paper
• Responsible fathering: An overview and conceptual framework

  1998cited by this paper
• Families as systems.

  1997cited by this paper
• Item Response Theory: Brief History, Common Models, and Extensions

  1997cited by this paper
• Nutritional supplementation, psychosocial stimulation, and mental development of stunted children: the Jamaican Study.

  1991cited by this paper
• A Test of Missing Completely at Random for Multivariate Data with Missing Values

  1988cited by this paper
• Families and individual development: provocations from the field of family therapy.

  1985cited by this paper
• Item Response Theory

  1984cited by this paper
• Home observation for measurement of the environment

  1979cited by this paper
• Social learning theory

  1977cited by this paper

• Family Engagement in Caregiving Activities and Child Development Outcomes in Vietnam: A Fixed-Effects Analysis

  2026cites this paper
• Bridging the Gender Gap: Linking Rewarding and Punitive Parenting with Adolescents’ Self-regulation and Social Competence

  2025cites this paper
• Four-year follow-up to a home-visiting intervention to promote early childhood development and prevent family violence in rural Rwanda: the Sugira Muryango cluster randomised trial

  2025cites this paper
• Being a Pakistani mother in Catalonia: a mixed methods study

  2024cites this paper
• Exploring the Trajectory of Home Learning Environment for Preschoolers in Bangladesh

  2024cites this paper
• Development and validation of a measure for father involvement during early childhood in a resource-limited context

  2024cites this paper
• Impact of Home Stimulation on the Motor Development of Malnourished Toddlers: A Cross-sectional Study

  2024cites this paper
• Promoting responsive care and early learning practices among caregivers of children 0–23 months in the Kyrgyz Republic: findings from integrating a counselling intervention with nutrition services

  2024cites this paper
• Associations between neighborhood characteristics, mental health, and parenting among mothers with young children in Brazil: A cross-sectional study of women living in communities of social disadvantage and ethnic diversity

  2024cites this paper
• Effects of multi-component parenting and parental mental health interventions on early childhood development and parent outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

  2024cites this paper
• Experimental Impacts of a Virtual Parenting Program with Mothers and Fathers

  2024cites this paper
• Promoting responsive care and early learning practices in Northern Ghana: results from a counselling intervention within nutrition and health services

  2024cites this paper
• Family responsive care mediating the home visiting effects on left-behind children's early development in rural China.

  2024cites this paper
• Maternal Subjective Wellbeing and the Cognitive and Socioemotional Outcomes of 3- to 4-Year-Old Children in Nigeria

  2024cites this paper
• The next 1000 days: building on early investments for the health and development of young children.

  2024cites this paper
• What influences early cognitive development? Family context as a key mediator.

  2023cites this paper
• Variations in risk, resilience, and protective factors for cognitive and socioemotional development among 3- to 4-year-old children in Nigeria: A multilevel modeling

  2023cites this paper
• The Reach Up Parenting Program, Child Development, and Maternal Depression: A Meta-analysis.

  2023cites this paper
• Maternal stimulation and early child development in sub-saharan Africa: evidence from Kenya and Zambia

  2023cites this paper
• The effects of a 2-week gratitude journaling intervention to reduce parental stress and enhance well-being: a pilot study among preschool parents

  2023cites this paper
• Parenting in 2 Worlds: Testing improved parent-adolescent communication about sexuality in Urban American Indian families.

  2023cites this paper
• Relationships Between Mental Health, Negative Feelings of COVID-19, and Parenting Among Pregnant Women in Fortaleza, Brazil

  2023cites this paper
• Effects of engaging fathers and bundling parenting and nutrition interventions on early child development and maternal and paternal parenting in Mara, Tanzania: a factorial cluster-randomized controlled trial.

  2023cites this paper
• Positive Parenting and Early Childhood Cognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

  2023cites this paper
• Urban–rural differences in the relationship between stunting, preschool attendance, home learning support, and school readiness: A study in Côte d'Ivoire

  2023cites this paper
• Do childhood depressive symptoms interfere with intelligence in adulthood?

  2023cites this paper
• How parental internet use impacted parenting practices and children’s behavior during the Covid-19 pandemic

  2022cites this paper
• Influence of Financial Parenting and Financial Coping Behaviour on Well-Being of Young Adults: A Study in India

  2022cites this paper
• Parenting centers and caregiver mental health: Evidence from a large-scale randomized controlled trial in China.

  2022cites this paper
• Environmental opportunities facilitating cognitive development in preschoolers: development of a multicriteria index

  2022cites this paper
• Exploring the feasibility of integrating health, nutrition and stimulation interventions for children under three years in Nepal’s health system: A qualitative study

  2022cites this paper
• Effect of parenting intervention through “Care for Child Development Guideline” on early child development and behaviors: a randomized controlled trial

  2022cites this paper
• Association of Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence With Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Early Childhood Socioemotional Development Among Mothers and Children in Rural Tanzania

  2022cites this paper
• Effect of a home-visiting parenting program to promote early childhood development and prevent violence: a cluster-randomized trial in Rwanda

  2021cites this paper
• Child diet and mother–child interactions mediate intervention effects on child growth and development

  2021cites this paper
• Do parental stimulation practices modify the effect of child’s health status on early developmental risk? Findings from a hospitalized cohort

  2021cites this paper
• Measuring early child development across low and middle-income countries: A systematic review

  2021cites this paper
• Relationships between paternal attitudes, paternal involvement, and infant‐feeding outcomes: Mixed‐methods findings from a global on‐line survey of English‐speaking fathers

  2021cites this paper
• Maternal depression is associated with less dietary diversity among rural Nepali children

  2021cites this paper
• The Importance of Mothers’ and Fathers’ Positive Parenting for Toddlers’ and Preschoolers’ Social-Emotional Adjustment

  2021influential citation
• Parenting interventions to promote early child development in the first three years of life: A global systematic review and meta-analysis

  2021cites this paper
• Short-term, medium-term and long-term effects of early parenting interventions in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review

  2021cites this paper
• Intimate Partner Violence, Maternal and Paternal Parenting, and Early Child Development

  2020cites this paper
• MATERNAL STATUS, NUTRITIONAL STATUS, AND PSYCHOSOCIAL STIMULATION AS DETERMINANT FACTORS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AMONG CHILDREN UNDER FIVE

  2020cites this paper
• Mothers' and Fathers' Parenting Stress, Responsiveness, and Child Wellbeing Among Low-Income Families.

  2020cites this paper
• Maternal, paternal, and other caregivers’ stimulation in low- and- middle-income countries

  2020cites this paper
• Childhood Emotional Incest Scale (CEIS): Development, validation, cross-validation, and reliability.

  2020cites this paper
• Association of Childhood Social-Emotional Functioning Profiles at School Entry With Early-Onset Mental Health Conditions

  2019cites this paper
• How do parents guide children towards ‘playing to learn’? Reflections on four studies in a special issue on self- and co-regulation in early childhood

  2019cites this paper
• Studying Executive Function Skills in Young Children in Low‐ and Middle‐Income Countries: Progress and Directions

  2019cites this paper
• Agreement between Fathers’ and Mothers’ Reported Stimulation and Associations with Observed Responsive Parenting in Pakistan

  2019cites this paper
• Longitudinal Pathways to Reading Achievement at Age 7 Years: Child and Environmental Influences

  2019cites this paper
• Low risk of neurodevelopmental impairment among perinatally acquired HIV‐infected preschool children who received early antiretroviral treatment in Thailand

  2019cites this paper
• Impact of Developmental Stimulation Program on Language Evolution Age in 1-3 Year-Old Children with Celiac Diseas

  2018cites this paper
• Early Childhood Development And The Next 1000 Days 1 The next 1000 days: building on early investments for the health and development of young children

  year unknowncites this paper