Analysing N-of-1 observational data in health psychology and behavioural medicine: a 10-step SPSS tutorial for beginners

ABSTRACT Background: N-of-1 observational studies can be used to describe natural intra-individual changes in health-related behaviours or symptoms over time, to test behavioural theories and to develop highly personalised health interventions. To date, N-of-1 observational methods have been under-used in health psychology and behavioural medicine. One reason for this may be the perceived complexity of statistical analysis of N-of-1 data. Objective: This tutorial paper describes a 10-step procedure for the analysis of N-of-1 observational data using dynamic regression modelling in SPSS for researchers, students and clinicians who are new to this area. The 10-step procedure is illustrated using real data from an N-of-1 observational study exploring the relationship between pain and physical activity. Conclusion: The availability of a user-friendly and robust statistical technique for the analysis of N-of-1 data using SPSS may foster increased awareness, knowledge and skills and establish N-of-1 designs as a useful methodological tool in health psychology and behavioural medicine.

• Publication year

  2020

• Venue

  Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine

• Publication date

  2020-01-01

• Fields of study

  Medicine, Psychology

• Identifiers
  DOI 10.1080/21642850.2019.1711096PMID 34040861PMCID 8114402
• External record

  Open on Semantic Scholar

• Source metadata

  Semantic Scholar, PubMed

• No claims are published for this paper.

• No concepts are published for this paper.

• N-of-1 methods: A practical guide to exploring trajectories of behaviour change and designing precision behaviour change interventions

  2020cited by this paper
• Comparison of Aggregated N-of-1 Trials with Parallel and Crossover Randomized Controlled Trials Using Simulation Studies

  2019cited by this paper
• Testing a model of reward sensitivity, implicit and explicit drinker identity and hazardous drinking

  2019cited by this paper
• Real-time monitoring technology in single-case experimental design research: Opportunities and challenges.

  2019cited by this paper
• Exploring the contributions of N of 1 methods to health psychology research and practice

  2019cited by this paper
• Understanding and Predicting a Complex Behavior Using n-of-1 Methods: Photoprotection in Xeroderma Pigmentosum

  2018cited by this paper
• A series of n-of-1 studies examining the interrelationships between social cognitive theory constructs and physical activity behaviour within individuals

  2018cited by this paper
• Patient Perceptions of Their Own Data in mHealth Technology–Enabled N-of-1 Trials for Chronic Pain: Qualitative Study

  2018cited by this paper
• The state of the art and future opportunities for using longitudinal n-of-1 methods in health behaviour research: a systematic literature overview

  2017cited by this paper
• Does Stress Result in You Exercising Less? Or Does Exercising Result in You Being Less Stressed? Or Is It Both? Testing the Bi-directional Stress-Exercise Association at the Group and Person (N of 1) Level

  2017cited by this paper
• Dynamic modelling of n-of-1 data: powerful and flexible data analytics applied to individualised studies

  2017cited by this paper
• Envisioning a future for precision health psychology: innovative applied statistical approaches to N-of-1 studies

  2017cited by this paper
• Changes in physical activity during the retirement transition: a series of novel n-of-1 natural experiments

  2017cited by this paper
• Understanding Variation in Sets of N-of-1 Trials

  2016cited by this paper
• Appreciating the Nuance of Daily Symptom Variation to Individualize Patient Care

  2016cited by this paper
• The Single-Case Reporting Guideline In BEhavioural Interventions (SCRIBE) 2016 Statement.

  2016cited by this paper
• Using impairment and cognitions to predict walking in osteoarthritis: A series of n-of-1 studies with an individually tailored, data-driven intervention.

  2016cited by this paper
• Comparison of different Methods for Univariate Time Series Imputation in R

  2015cited by this paper
• Developing and Evaluating Complex Interventions

  2015cited by this paper
• Interrater Agreement Between Visual Analysts of Single-Case Data

  2015cited by this paper
• The Essential Guide to N-of-1 Trials in Health

  2015cited by this paper
• CONSORT extension for reporting N-of-1 trials (CENT) 2015 Statement

  2015cited by this paper
• Statistical Analysis of N-of-1 Trials

  2015cited by this paper
• Ecological Momentary Assessment

  2015cited by this paper
• R: A language and environment for statistical computing.

  2014cited by this paper
• Single-case experimental designs: Reflections on conduct and analysis

  2014cited by this paper
• Useful theories should apply to individuals.

  2013cited by this paper
• Testing an integrated behavioural and biomedical model of disability in N-of-1 studies with chronic pain

  2013cited by this paper
• Revision of a method quality rating scale for single-case experimental designs and n-of-1 trials: The 15-item Risk of Bias in N-of-1 Trials (RoBiNT) Scale

  2013cited by this paper
• Analyzing data from single-case designs using multilevel models: new applications and some agenda items for future research.

  2013cited by this paper
• Can the theory of planned behaviour predict the physical activity behaviour of individuals?

  2013influential reference
• Single-case experimental designs: a systematic review of published research and current standards.

  2012cited by this paper
• Individual (N-of-1) trials can be combined to give population comparative treatment effect estimates: methodologic considerations.

  2010cited by this paper
• Single-Case Research Designs: Methods for Clinical and Applied Settings

  2010cited by this paper
• Ecological momentary assessment.

  2008cited by this paper
• Dynamic Models for Dynamic Theories: The Ins and Outs of Lagged Dependent Variables

  2006cited by this paper
• Using n-of-1 trials as a clinical tool to improve prescribing.

  2005cited by this paper
• A Comparison of Missing-Data Procedures for Arima Time-Series Analysis

  2005cited by this paper
• Missing data: our view of the state of the art.

  2002cited by this paper
• Patients' responsibilities in medical ethics.

  2002cited by this paper
• Random Forests

  2001cited by this paper
• Marginal and dynamic regression models for longitudinal data

  2001cited by this paper
• The theory of planned behavior

  1991cited by this paper
• Single Subject Research: Strategies for Evaluating Change

  1978cited by this paper
• Single Case Experimental Designs: Strategies for Studying Behavior Change

  1976cited by this paper
• Time series analysis, forecasting and control

  1972cited by this paper

• Getting the Most From Your Data: Using Statistical Process Controls for Data Quality Assurance in Sport Science Data.

  2026cites this paper
• N‐of‐1 trials in clinical research: Methodological foundations, statistical approaches and implementation challenges

  2025influential citation
• Did a true change occur? Improving analytical decisions for serial performance testing in sport.

  2025cites this paper
• Personal Health and Well-Being Determinants Associated with the Day-to-Day Variability of Sedentary Behaviour in Community-Dwelling People with Stroke

  2025influential citation
• A Personalized, Integrative Approach in Treating Major Depressive Disorder: N-of-1 Study with Plasma Proteome and Physicochemical Analysis of Homeopathic Preparations

  2025cites this paper
• Continuous heart rate variability monitoring—understanding patterns of stress and recovery and their relationship with self-reported burnout, resilience and well-being in doctors: a protocol for a sequential explanatory mixed-methods study

  2025cites this paper
• Athlete Burnout and Biomarkers: An Exploratory, Longitudinal N-of-1 Study.

  2025cites this paper
• Befriending, Loneliness, and Quality of Life of Older Adults: A Pilot Evaluation Study

  2025cites this paper
• I watch SEM: continuous time dynamic models with N≥1 smart watch data

  2025cites this paper
• Linking physical activity to workers’ low back pain, back health, and theory-based psychological variables: study protocol of the workHealth intensive longitudinal observational study

  2025cites this paper
• From persons to general principles: Methodological decisions for idiographic and nomothetic research

  2024cites this paper
• Novel study designs and modelling approaches in nutrition research: application of advanced statistical modelling approaches and N-of-1 study designs.

  2024cites this paper
• N-of-1 behavioural medicine: Revolutionizing health promotion in public health through personalized intervention

  2024cites this paper
• Homeopathy for Major Depressive Disorder: Protocol for N-of-1 Studies

  2023cites this paper
• Personalised and Sustainable IEQ Monitoring: Use of Multi-Modal and Pervasive Technologies

  2023cites this paper
• Using randomized controlled trials in the sports medicine and performance environment: is it time to reconsider and think outside the methodological box?

  2023cites this paper
• Protocol of a feasibility study of a virtual personalized (N-of-1) trial for increasing low-intensity physical activity in older adults via habit formation

  2023cites this paper
• Acceptance and commitment therapy in parents of children with cancer at psychosocial risk: A randomized multiple baseline evaluation

  2023cites this paper
• Profiles of resilient psychosocial function during three isolated ski expeditions in the High Arctic.

  2023cites this paper
• Characteristics of Missing Data in Single-Case Experimental Designs: An Investigation of Published Data

  2023cites this paper
• SCIENTIA MEDICA

  2022influential citation
• Pain and physical activity for one individual

  2022cites this paper
• A protocol for longitudinal monitoring of individual building occupants and their environments

  2022cites this paper
• Brief and Telehealth Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Interventions for Stress in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A Series of Single Case Experimental Design (SCED) Studies

  2022cites this paper
• Impact of biofeedback and digitalized motivational interviewing on daily physical activity: Series of factorial N-of-1 RCTs piloting the Precious app (Preprint)

  2021cites this paper
• Single-Case Experimental Designs: Clinical Research and Practice

  2021cites this paper
• Exploring Symptom Fluctuations and Triggers in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Using Novel Patient-Centred N-of-1 Observational Designs: A Protocol for a Feasibility and Acceptability Study

  2021cites this paper
• Assessing Intervention Effects in the Presence of Missing Scores

  2021influential citation
• Value engineering and lifecycle cost analysis to improve cost performance in green hospital project

  2021cites this paper
• The Evaluation of a Family-Engagement Approach to Increase Physical Activity, Healthy Nutrition, and Well-Being in Children and Their Parents

  2021cites this paper
• Biofeedback and Digitalized Motivational Interviewing to Increase Daily Physical Activity: Series of Factorial N-of-1 Randomized Controlled Trials Piloting the Precious App

  2021influential citation
• Introducing the ‘Psychosomatic Screening Questionnaire - 29’ (PSSQ-29): Reliability and Validity in an Epidemiological Sample of 1,158 Participants in Greece during the COVID-19 Domestic Lockdown

  2021cites this paper
• Mirror therapy for phantom limb pain in moderate intellectual disability. A case report

  2021cites this paper
• Establishment of an International Collaborative Network for N-of-1 Trials and Single-Case Designs

  2021cites this paper
• Neural Network Technologies for Diagnosing Heart Disease

  2020cites this paper
• Acute and Chronic Stress in Daily Police Service: A Three-Week N-of-1 Study.

  2020cites this paper