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Heterogeneous treatment effect of private tutoring on personality traits from the perspective of individual, family, and school factors among Chinese children

B. Abbasi,Hu Yanna,Ronghua Xu

Published 2026 in Frontiers in Psychology

ABSTRACT

Introduction Private tutoring (PT) has become increasingly prevalent in many countries, raising important questions about its impacts beyond academic achievement. However, most existing research on PT has primarily focused on academic outcomes, with limited attention to its influence on students' personality traits. Methods This study examined the heterogeneous treatment effect of PT on the personality traits of middle school students, while accounting for key contextual factors at the individual, family, and school levels. Using data from the China education panel survey (CEPS), the analysis employs both a logistic regression model (LRM) and structural equation modeling (SEM). Results The findings revealed that, in both rural and urban areas, hobbies, family financial condition, and parents' own educational background inspire the propensity of middle school students to attend PT (Cram schools) for mathematical Olympiad, ordinary mathematics, Chinese/Chinese composition writing, and English, as well as PT (Hobby classes) for painting, calligraphy, music, dancing, and sports or board games. However, ethnic nationality also influences this propensity, but only for rural students. Furthermore, there is a significant difference in the personality traits of rural and urban middle school students who have undergone PT classes and those who have not. Moreover, PT through cram schools and age is associated with personality traits, while school location and school oldness influence only rural students. Conversely, hobbies and the father's educational background influence only urban students. In addition, PT through hobby classes distracts from the personality traits of rural students, while for urban students, the impact is weak. Furthermore, students from higher socioeconomic statuses (SES) who attend PT are more likely to benefit in terms of personality traits. Discussion The findings suggest a complex interaction between PT and personality traits, with differences based on geographical location (rural vs. urban), SES, and the type of PT attended.

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