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Antifungal potential of naphthoquinone derivatives: screening of shikonin-based compounds and mechanistic insights into 5,8-dihydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone against Candida albicans in vitro and in vivo

Qingqing Chen,Minkai Yang,Xiaohui Lai,Jiabao Hu,A. Fazal,Yahan Zhang,Xiaoran Lv,Jiaxuan Xiao,Zheng-Ping Fan,Zichen Pan,Tongming Yin,Shucun Sun,Guihua Lu,Jinliang Qi,Hongyan Lin,Zhongling Wen,Yonghua Yang,Hongwei Han

Published 2026 in Microbiology spectrum

ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT Invasive fungal infections (IFIs), predominantly caused by Candida albicans, are a significant threat to immunocompromised individuals. The emergence of drug-resistant strains has intensified the need for novel antifungal agents. Natural naphthoquinones, including 5,8-dihydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (DHNQ, also as PNP-02), have broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, but their antifungal potential against C. albicans remains underexplored. This study evaluates the antifungal activity of DHNQ derivatives and elucidates their mechanisms of action. The antifungal properties of these compounds were evaluated using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method, broth microdilution assays, and phenotypic screening. DHNQ was identified as the most effective compound, and further investigation focused on its effects on C. albicans growth, biofilm formation, hyphal development, and underlying mechanisms, including oxidative stress induction and mitochondrial dysfunction. In a murine candidiasis model, DHNQ significantly reduced the fungal burden in both the kidneys and the skin, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging from 2 to 8 μg/mL, exceeding the activity of fluconazole against clinical isolates of fluconazole-resistant C. albicans strains by over 32 times. Mechanistic investigations revealed that DHNQ exerts its antifungal effects through a multi-pronged approach: inhibiting glycolysis, disrupting biofilm and hyphal formation, and inducing oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction. Notably, DHNQ exhibited low cytotoxicity in vitro and no observable toxicity in vivo. These properties make it a promising lead molecule for future optimization and development of treatments for C. albicans infections, pending crucial evaluations of its selectivity and safety in host environments. IMPORTANCE In summary, this study demonstrated that DHNQ exhibits potent and broad-spectrum antifungal activity, showing significant efficacy against C. albicans both in vitro and in vivo. Unlike conventional antifungals, DHNQ disrupted the virulence of C. albicans by inhibiting glycolysis, suppressing biofilm formation, and inducing oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction. These findings not only highlight the promising potential of DHNQ as a treatment for C. albicans infections but also provide critical insights that may facilitate the development of new antifungal agents. In summary, this study demonstrated that DHNQ exhibits potent and broad-spectrum antifungal activity, showing significant efficacy against C. albicans both in vitro and in vivo. Unlike conventional antifungals, DHNQ disrupted the virulence of C. albicans by inhibiting glycolysis, suppressing biofilm formation, and inducing oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction. These findings not only highlight the promising potential of DHNQ as a treatment for C. albicans infections but also provide critical insights that may facilitate the development of new antifungal agents.

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