{"corpus_id":244975109,"paper_sha":"ed2e0d187a06214b09ce5fad8a3f57df1af903f7","doi":"10.3390/rs13244957","arxiv_id":null,"pmid":null,"pmcid":null,"mag_id":null,"dblp_id":"journals/remotesensing/SamantaHMCGFN21","acl_id":null,"title":"Assessment and Attribution of Mangrove Forest Changes in the Indian Sundarbans from 2000 to 2020","year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-12-07","venue":"Remote Sensing","journal":{"name":"Remote. Sens.","pages":"4957","volume":"13"},"journal_issn":null,"journal_title":null,"publication_types":["JournalArticle","Review"],"pubmed_pub_types":null,"s2_fields_of_study":["Computer Science","Environmental Science"],"reference_count":108,"citation_count":57,"influential_citation_count":1,"is_open_access":true,"arxiv_categories":null,"arxiv_license":null,"arxiv_journal_ref":null,"mesh_headings":null,"chemicals":null,"comments_corrections":null,"source_flags":1,"s2_open_access_pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/13/24/4957/pdf?version=1638849259","s2_open_access_landing_url":"https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ed2e0d187a06214b09ce5fad8a3f57df1af903f7","s2_open_access_license":"CCBY","s2_open_access_status":"GOLD","pmc_open_access_pdf_url":null,"pmc_open_access_landing_url":null,"pmc_open_access_license":null,"pmc_open_access_status":null,"unpaywall_open_access_pdf_url":null,"unpaywall_open_access_landing_url":null,"unpaywall_open_access_license":null,"unpaywall_open_access_status":null,"abstract":"The Indian Sundarbans, together with Bangladesh, comprise the largest mangrove forest in the world. Reclamation of the mangroves in this region ceased in the 1930s. However, they are still subject to adverse environmental influences, such as sediment starvation due to migration of the main river channels in the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta over the last few centuries, cyclone landfall, wave action from the Bay of Bengal—changing hydrology due to upstream water diversion—and the pervasive effects of relative sea-level rise. This study builds on earlier work to assess changes from 2000 to 2020 in mangrove extent, genus composition, and mangrove ‘health’ indicators, using various vegetation indices derived from Landsat and MODIS satellite imagery by performing maximum likelihood supervised classification. We show that about 110 km2 of mangroves disappeared within the reserve forest due to erosion, and 81 km2 were gained within the inhabited part of Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve (SBR) through plantation and regeneration. The gains are all outside the contiguous mangroves. However, they partially compensate for the losses of the contiguous mangroves in terms of carbon. Genus composition, analyzed by amalgamating data from published literature and ground-truthing surveys, shows change towards more salt-tolerant genus accompanied by a reduction in the prevalence of freshwater-loving Heiritiera, Nypa, and Sonneratia assemblages. Health indicators, such as the enhanced vegetation index (EVI) and normalized differential vegetation index (NDVI), show a monotonic trend of deterioration over the last two decades, which is more pronounced in the sea-facing parts of the mangrove forests. An increase in salinity, a temperature rise, and rainfall reduction in the pre-monsoon and the post-monsoon periods appear to have led to such degradation. Collectively, these results show a decline in mangrove area and health, which poses an existential threat to the Indian Sundarbans in the long term, especially under scenarios of climate change and sea-level rise. Given its unique values, the policy process should acknowledge and address these threats.","claims":[{"public_id":"cl_4e6895e43fa20e10e93346adfe88885c","status":"active","text":"About 110 km2 of mangroves disappeared within the reserve forest due to erosion, while 81 km2 were gained within the inhabited part of the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve through plantation and regeneration.","confidence":0.99,"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/claims/cl_4e6895e43fa20e10e93346adfe88885c"},{"public_id":"cl_ba0dc87064088765345d549c085bb426","status":"active","text":"Genus composition shifted toward more salt-tolerant genera, accompanied by reduced prevalence of freshwater-loving Heiritiera, Nypa, and Sonneratia assemblages.","confidence":0.96,"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/claims/cl_ba0dc87064088765345d549c085bb426"},{"public_id":"cl_a58456290cc8c67f9660f99b7f43a5aa","status":"active","text":"Increasing salinity, rising temperature, and reduced pre-monsoon and post-monsoon rainfall appear to have driven the observed degradation.","confidence":0.93,"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/claims/cl_a58456290cc8c67f9660f99b7f43a5aa"},{"public_id":"cl_91426b3a09a43ea745bb7d5e9aace9ff","status":"active","text":"Mangrove health indicators such as enhanced vegetation index and normalized differential vegetation index show a monotonic deterioration over the last two decades, with stronger decline in the sea-facing parts of the mangrove forests.","confidence":0.98,"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/claims/cl_91426b3a09a43ea745bb7d5e9aace9ff"},{"public_id":"cl_d1e64c4cc18073afcb0c4e0b091e6bbe","status":"active","text":"The gained mangrove area occurs outside the contiguous mangroves and only partially compensates for the carbon losses of the contiguous mangroves.","confidence":0.91,"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/claims/cl_d1e64c4cc18073afcb0c4e0b091e6bbe"}],"concepts":[{"public_id":"co_13a2253919d7f4f1076ff069ad917f29","status":"active","name":"enhanced vegetation index","description":"A satellite-derived vegetation index used as an indicator of mangrove condition.","types":["remote sensing index","health indicator"],"aliases":["EVI"],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_13a2253919d7f4f1076ff069ad917f29"},{"public_id":"co_1da3a153b85b36302706b0a95bfa4962","status":"active","name":"temperature rise","description":"An increase in temperature over time in the study region.","types":["environmental factor"],"aliases":[],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_1da3a153b85b36302706b0a95bfa4962"},{"public_id":"co_3952bfef808f84430afa1fc80f4beae1","status":"active","name":"salinity","description":"The concentration of dissolved salts in the mangrove environment.","types":["environmental factor"],"aliases":[],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_3952bfef808f84430afa1fc80f4beae1"},{"public_id":"co_3b4db3199cca79c1d07014de7bb734d8","status":"active","name":"Heiritiera, Nypa, and Sonneratia assemblages","description":"Mangrove assemblages dominated by freshwater-loving genera that declined in prevalence.","types":["taxonomic assemblage"],"aliases":["Heiritiera","Nypa","Sonneratia assemblages"],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_3b4db3199cca79c1d07014de7bb734d8"},{"public_id":"co_401e31a22c4081abf3ae6792aab39e80","status":"active","name":"rainfall reduction","description":"A decrease in rainfall during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods.","types":["environmental factor"],"aliases":[],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_401e31a22c4081abf3ae6792aab39e80"},{"public_id":"co_50768a7bab0df1856b8fed95d54c19e6","status":"active","name":"Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve","description":"The biosphere reserve in the Indian Sundarbans that includes inhabited and contiguous mangrove zones.","types":["protected area"],"aliases":["SBR"],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_50768a7bab0df1856b8fed95d54c19e6"},{"public_id":"co_7fbbd0d3ebadb84b6a4bcfec76342b0c","status":"active","name":"genus composition","description":"The distribution of mangrove genera present in the forest assemblage.","types":["ecological composition"],"aliases":[],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_7fbbd0d3ebadb84b6a4bcfec76342b0c"},{"public_id":"co_8b9fab7156805b5807b519ae4376bfb5","status":"active","name":"sea-facing parts of the mangrove forests","description":"The portions of the mangrove forests exposed to the sea, where deterioration was more pronounced.","types":["geographic zone"],"aliases":[],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_8b9fab7156805b5807b519ae4376bfb5"},{"public_id":"co_8f0382d1b9286d345338621f8731dff8","status":"active","name":"mangrove extent","description":"The spatial area covered by mangrove forest in the study region.","types":["ecological measure"],"aliases":[],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_8f0382d1b9286d345338621f8731dff8"},{"public_id":"co_92b77dbc32438aa2817f5c126e33be14","status":"active","name":"salt-tolerant genus","description":"Mangrove genera adapted to higher salinity conditions.","types":["taxonomic group"],"aliases":[],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_92b77dbc32438aa2817f5c126e33be14"},{"public_id":"co_a0003dfd6f13eefe17772846336b090d","status":"active","name":"contiguous mangroves","description":"The continuous mangrove forest patches in the Sundarbans.","types":["forest type"],"aliases":[],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_a0003dfd6f13eefe17772846336b090d"},{"public_id":"co_c4a63b0fa23b99a690f053c86575fadb","status":"active","name":"reserve forest","description":"The protected forest area within the Indian Sundarbans where mangrove losses were assessed.","types":["protected area"],"aliases":[],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_c4a63b0fa23b99a690f053c86575fadb"},{"public_id":"co_c5fb82cc04f7689531483be942d3c34f","status":"active","name":"carbon","description":"Carbon stored in mangrove biomass and ecosystems, used here as a basis for comparing gains and losses.","types":["biogeochemical property"],"aliases":[],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_c5fb82cc04f7689531483be942d3c34f"},{"public_id":"co_ce8085b9e8fe57cb32ab733ae11c4ee3","status":"active","name":"normalized differential vegetation index","description":"A satellite-derived vegetation index used as an indicator of vegetation condition.","types":["remote sensing index","health indicator"],"aliases":["NDVI"],"contributors":[{"id":1,"public_id":"12632b8b5f","public_label":"Anonymous (12632b8b5f)","roles":["extraction"],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/u/12632b8b5f"}],"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/concepts/co_ce8085b9e8fe57cb32ab733ae11c4ee3"}],"external_ids":{"DOI":"10.3390/rs13244957","ArXiv":null,"PubMed":null,"PubMedCentral":null,"MAG":null,"DBLP":"journals/remotesensing/SamantaHMCGFN21","ACL":null},"open_access":{"is_open_access":true,"pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/13/24/4957/pdf?version=1638849259","landing_url":"https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ed2e0d187a06214b09ce5fad8a3f57df1af903f7","source":"semantic_scholar","pdf_url_source":"semantic_scholar_open_access_pdf","license":"CCBY","status":"GOLD","reason":null},"reference_availability":{"status":"available","references_indexed":true,"full_text_available":false,"full_text_source":null,"count_basis":"semantic_scholar_metadata","extraction_status":"not_applicable","reason":null},"source":{"provider":"episteme2","base_corpus":"semantic_scholar_dump","freshness_mode":"unknown","basis":["semantic_scholar_metadata","postgres_metadata"],"limits":["paper metadata is based on indexed upstream scholarly datasets","claims and concepts are available only for extracted papers","absence of claims or concepts means no extracted graph data is available in this response"],"status":"available","degraded":false,"degraded_reasons":[],"diagnostics":{"status":"available","degraded":false,"degraded_reasons":[],"metadata_status":"available","graph_status":"available","abstract_status":"available"},"source_flags":1},"paper_id":637306,"paper_uid":"cebcd8c8-da94-4c51-b76f-a284e05e9da1","canonical_identity":{"paper_id":637306,"paper_uid":"cebcd8c8-da94-4c51-b76f-a284e05e9da1","identity_status":"available","lookup_basis":"semantic_scholar_external_id","compatibility_path":"corpus_id"},"url":"https://sah.borca.ai/papers/244975109"}