cocor: A Comprehensive Solution for the Statistical Comparison of Correlations

A valid comparison of the magnitude of two correlations requires researchers to directly contrast the correlations using an appropriate statistical test. In many popular statistics packages, however, tests for the significance of the difference between correlations are missing. To close this gap, we introduce cocor, a free software package for the R programming language. The cocor package covers a broad range of tests including the comparisons of independent and dependent correlations with either overlapping or nonoverlapping variables. The package also includes an implementation of Zou’s confidence interval for all of these comparisons. The platform independent cocor package enhances the R statistical computing environment and is available for scripting. Two different graphical user interfaces—a plugin for RKWard and a web interface—make cocor a convenient and user-friendly tool.

• Publication year

  2015

• Venue

  PLoS ONE

• Publication date

  2015-04-02

• Fields of study

  Mathematics, Computer Science, Medicine

• Identifiers
  DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0121945PMID 25835001PMCID 4383486
• External record

  Open on Semantic Scholar

• Source metadata

  Semantic Scholar, PubMed

• No claims are published for this paper.

• No concepts are published for this paper.

• R: A language and environment for statistical computing.

  2014cited by this paper
• SPSS and SAS programs for comparing Pearson correlations and OLS regression coefficients

  2013influential reference
• Improving standards in brain-behavior correlation analyses

  2012cited by this paper
• rTMS for Tinnitus

  2012cited by this paper
• Look at this: the neural correlates of initiating and responding to bids for joint attention

  2012cited by this paper
• Serious stats: a guide to advanced statistics for the behavioral sciences

  2012cited by this paper
• RKWard: A Comprehensive Graphical User Interface and Integrated Development Environment for Statistical Analysis with R

  2012cited by this paper
• Erroneous analyses of interactions in neuroscience: a problem of significance

  2011cited by this paper
• Constructing Approximate Confidence Intervals for Parameters With Structural Equation Models

  2009cited by this paper
• Comparing Pearson Correlations: Dealing with Heteroscedasticity and Nonnormality

  2009cited by this paper
• First (and second) steps in statistics

  2009cited by this paper
• Comparing Dependent Correlations

  2008cited by this paper
• incor: a computer program for testing differences among independent correlations

  2008cited by this paper
• Toward using confidence intervals to compare correlations.

  2007influential reference
• A FORTRAN 77 Program for Comparing Dependent Correlations

  2006cited by this paper
• Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences

  2005cited by this paper
• Testing Dependent Correlation Coefficients via Structural Equation Modeling

  2004cited by this paper
• Testing Dependent Correlations With Nonoverlapping Variables: A Monte Carlo Simulation

  2004cited by this paper
• A Monte Carlo Evaluation of Tests for Comparing Dependent Correlations

  2003cited by this paper
• Elementary Statistics

  2003cited by this paper
• Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World

  1999cited by this paper
• DEPCORR: A SAS Program for Comparing Dependent Correlations

  1998cited by this paper
• A Note on Statistics for Comparing Dependent Correlations

  1997cited by this paper
• Tests for Comparing Dependent Correlations Revisited: A Monte Carlo Study.

  1997cited by this paper
• Comparing Correlated but Nonoverlapping Correlations

  1996cited by this paper
• The earth is round (p < .05)

  1994cited by this paper
• Comparing correlated correlation coefficients

  1992cited by this paper
• Statistical Procedures and the Justification of Knowledge in Psychological Science

  1989cited by this paper
• Test for the equality of several correlation coefficients

  1989cited by this paper
• Averaging Correlation Coefficients: Should Fishers z Transformation Be Used?

  1987cited by this paper
• An Empirical Study of Related Correlation Coefficients

  1983cited by this paper
• Tests for comparing elements of a correlation matrix.

  1980cited by this paper
• Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences

  1979cited by this paper
• Statistical methods in education and psychology

  1979cited by this paper
• A Multiple Range Procedure for Independent Correlations

  1976cited by this paper
• Equality of Dependent Correlation Coefficients

  1975cited by this paper
• Comparison of Tests of the Equality of Dependent Correlation Coefficients

  1971cited by this paper
• Note Correcting the Results in “Olkin's New Formula for the Significance of r13vs. r23 Compared with Hotelling's Method”

  1970cited by this paper
• Olkin's New Formula for Significance of r13 vs. r23 Compared with Hotelling's Method1

  1970cited by this paper
• Correlation Coefficients Measured on the Same Individuals

  1969cited by this paper
• Modern Elementary Statistics

  1968cited by this paper
• Improving Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis.

  1967cited by this paper
• The Comparison of Regression Variables

  1959cited by this paper
• Modern elementary statistics

  1953cited by this paper
• Statistical Procedures and their Mathematical Bases

  1941cited by this paper
• The Selection of Variates for Use in Prediction with Some Comments on the General Problem of Nuisance Parameters

  1940influential reference
• Statistical methods for research workers

  1927cited by this paper
• Mathematical contributions to the theory of evolution. IV. On the probable errors of frequency constants and on the influence of random selection on variation and correlation

  year unknowncited by this paper
• 014: On the "Probable Error" of a Coefficient of Correlation Deduced from a Small Sample.

  year unknowncited by this paper

• The assessment of psychological richness, meaning, and happiness with social media text data: Predictive accuracy and distinct behavioral correlates

  2026cites this paper
• Three-dimensional anatomical description of the microarchitecture of the distal sesamoid bone in healthy and navicular syndrome-affected horses by computed microtomography.

  2026cites this paper
• Spatial transcriptomic profiling identifies lacrimal-gland-epithelial cell-driven mechanisms underlying autoimmunity in Sjögren’s disease

  2026cites this paper
• Intraocular Pressure Accuracy Post-Myopic Laser in situ Keratomileusis: Pivotal Study Results, Standard vs Correcting Applanation Tonometry Surface Goldmann Tonometry

  2026cites this paper
• Validating explicit rating tasks for measuring pronunciation biases: A case study of ING variation

  2026cites this paper
• Negative Life Events and Life Satisfaction in Chinese Students with and without Learning Disabilities: Mediating Roles of Perceived Social Support and Resilience

  2026cites this paper
• Proposal, Derivation, and External Validation of a Novel Geographic Atrophy Outcome Measure.

  2026cites this paper
• Children and Adolescents’ Perception of Neighborhood Insecurity and Mental Health

  2026cites this paper
• Do Age and Episodic Memory Task Performance Differentially Relate to Tract-specific White Matter Microstructure? Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Analyses in a Healthy Adult Sample.

  2026cites this paper
• Sensory modality- and load-dependent changes across cortical working memory representations

  2026cites this paper
• Disruption of chrna5 blunts aversion and adaptive transcriptomic responses to nicotine and alcohol

  2026cites this paper
• Human vs. Machine - Evaluating GPT-4, GPT-4o and GPT-4o-Mini in Rating Depression Interviews in a Convenience Sample of the German Population

  2026cites this paper
• Changes in age-related sexual selection in a humpback whale population recovering from exploitation.

  2026cites this paper
• Psychometric evaluation of the full and shortened versions of the WGCTA-II in Slovak university students.

  2026cites this paper
• Exploration, Exploitation, or Ambidexterity? A Meta-Analysis of SME Strategic Orientation and Performance Across Different Levels of Environmental Munificence

  2026cites this paper
• Reading and vocabulary knowledge in English–Meetei Mayek biliterates: a registered report

  2026cites this paper
• Identification of MITF-regulated transcript isoforms of ubiquitously expressed genes.

  2026cites this paper
• Familiar story structures possess an evolutionary edge in memory.

  2026cites this paper
• How individual differences in autobiographical memory relate to morality

  2026cites this paper
• How different forms of social rank are expressed in social behavior: A study of emerging adults in cooperative and competitive contexts

  2026cites this paper
• The Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance of Parent-Report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire During a Public Health Crisis.

  2026cites this paper
• Remote digital cognitive assessment for aging and dementia using the Oxford Cognitive Testing Portal OCTAL

  2026cites this paper
• Synergistic intragenic epigenetic deregulation by IDH2 and SRSF2 mutations causes mis-splicing of key transcriptional regulators

  2026cites this paper
• Structure–Function Relationship Between Optic Nerve Head Morphometry and Virtual Reality-Based Perimetry in Open-Angle Glaucoma

  2026cites this paper
• Development and Validation of the Conversational AI Dependence Scale (CAID): A Dual-Dimensional Measure of Instrumental and Emotional Dependence

  2026cites this paper
• Neurocognitive characterization of behaviour and mental illness through time-varying brain network analysis

  2026cites this paper
• Magnetic resonance microscopy maps widespread effects of Alzheimer's disease on brain structures and behavior in mice.

  2026cites this paper
• Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance Across Gender of the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire—Short Form in Italian Workers

  2026cites this paper
• Regional tissue perfusion index (RTPI): a new optical-based metric for quantifying regional tissue perfusion.

  2026cites this paper
• Consolidation and integration of information overload and communication overload – A theory-based derivation of distinct measurement models and scale development

  2026cites this paper
• A low-calorie rebaudioside D–glucose–sodium sweetener matches sucrose in palatability and neural responses in a functional MRI study of healthy adults

  2026cites this paper
• Odor Sampling Bags Enable Reliable Delivery of Controlled Odor Concentrations

  2026cites this paper
• Human thalamocortical structural connectivity develops in line with a hierarchical axis of cortical plasticity

  2025cites this paper
• Using Markov Chains to Detect Careless Responding in Survey Research

  2025cites this paper
• Early Photoreceptor Alterations After Retinal Detachment Repair

  2025cites this paper
• Parent–offspring brain similarity: Specificities and commonalities among sex combinations–the TRIO study

  2025cites this paper
• Assessing biasing factors in asynchronous video interviews: applicant completion decisions, video background, and evaluation format

  2025cites this paper
• Serum glutathione reductase level as a disease activity biomarker in systemic lupus erythematosus: a single-centre preliminary study

  2025cites this paper
• Reducing redundancy and enhancing accuracy through a phylogenetically-informed microbial community metabolic modeling approach

  2025cites this paper
• How laypeople evaluate scientific explanations containing jargon

  2025cites this paper
• Investigation of brain white matter and social cognition in schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder using neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging

  2025cites this paper
• Physiological insensitivity to an increase in leaf Fe constitutes a tissue-tolerance mechanism against Fe toxicity in rice

  2025cites this paper
• Does feeling collective responsibility for intergroup harm lead to infrahumanization?

  2025cites this paper
• The ‘healthy = sustainable’ heuristic: Effects of health and sustainability labels on perceived sustainability and healthiness of foods

  2025cites this paper
• Minimal important change and responsiveness of the arabic patient-specific functional Scale in patients with upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders

  2025cites this paper
• Impact of chronotype on depression: The mediating roles of rumination and perceived stress

  2025cites this paper
• Accuracy of bedside ultrasound for predicting resting energy expenditure in critically ill patients: A feasibility study

  2025cites this paper
• Phase coupling of light exposure and activity differs between Arctic Natives and Non-Natives

  2025influential citation
• Plantar intrinsic foot muscle activity and its relationship with postural sway during single-legged and bipedal tiptoe standing in ballet dancers

  2025cites this paper
• RHD6LA regulates root hair responses to both symbionts and commensals

  2025cites this paper
• The Roles of Okurigana and Lexical Context in Reading Kanji Words with Kun‐Reading and Their Relationship to Reading Amount

  2025cites this paper
• Age-related Facilitation of Bimanual Finger Behaviors by Haptic Augmentation

  2025cites this paper
• Egg Size Variation in the Southern House Wren Troglodytes musculus bonariae

  2025cites this paper
• Consistent microbial insights across sequencing methods in soil studies: the role of reference taxonomies

  2025cites this paper
• Experimental evolution of a pathogen confronted with innate immune memory increases variation in virulence

  2025influential citation
• Long-lasting behavioral, molecular and functional connectivity alterations after chronic THC exposure during adolescence in mice.

  2025cites this paper
• Value Co-creation in a Client-Serving MBA Capstone: Exploring Client, Executive, and Faculty Contributions for Understanding Useful-to-Career Business Competencies

  2025cites this paper
• Estimating Cognitive Impairment in Bipolar Disorder: Should We Account for Premorbid IQ?

  2025cites this paper
• Multi-region investigation of ‘man’ as default in attitudes

  2025cites this paper
• Orbitofrontal Thickness and Network Associations as Transdiagnostic Signature of Amotivation Along the Bipolar-Schizophrenia Spectrum.

  2025cites this paper
• The clinical significance of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression across positive and negative emotions: evidence on the Polish version of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire – Positive/Negative (ERQ-PN)

  2025influential citation
• The Impact of Age and Sex on Left Ventricular Function Based on Transthoracic Echocardiograms

  2025cites this paper
• Representations of smells: The next frontier for language models?

  2025cites this paper
• Neurodiversity Movement Identification and Perceived Appropriateness of Terms Used to Describe Autism

  2025cites this paper
• Structure–function coupling using fixel-based analysis and functional magnetic resonance imaging in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment

  2025cites this paper
• Where the wild bees are: Birds improve indicators of bee richness

  2025cites this paper
• Detection of Outlying Correlation Coefficients in Multicenter Clinical Trials

  2025cites this paper
• Altered functional connectivity and spatiotemporal dynamics in individuals with central disorders of hypersomnolence

  2025cites this paper
• Functional correlates of atypical visuoperceptual organization in a multisite clinical high-risk sample.

  2025cites this paper
• Measurement properties of the German version of the birth satisfaction scale-revised (BSS-R) in women with pre-existing medical conditions and high-risk pregnancy

  2025influential citation
• Altered face perception in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: Evidence from representational similarity analysis of event-related potential

  2025influential citation
• Choroid plexus enlargement correlates with cognitive impairment and brain atrophy in patients with mood disorders.

  2025cites this paper
• ApoE ε4-dependent Alteration of CXCR3 + CD127+ CD4+ T cells associates with elevated plasma neurofilament light chain in Alzheimer's disease

  2025cites this paper
• Navigating Uncertainties in RT-qPCR and Infectivity Assessment of Norovirus

  2025cites this paper
• Tissue-tracking mitral annular displacement predicts impaired left ventricular mechanics and adverse outcomes in aortic stenosis with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction.

  2025cites this paper
• Psychotic‐Like Reasoning Styles in Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder? An Experimental Investigation of the Jumping to Conclusions Bias

  2025cites this paper
• Exploring Multimodal Perception in Large Language Models Through Perceptual Strength Ratings

  2025cites this paper
• Arabic Digits-in-Noise Tests: Relations to Hearing Loss and Comparison of Diotic and Antiphasic Versions

  2025cites this paper
• Aquaporin 4 modulation drives amyloid burden and cognitive abilities in an APPPS1 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

  2025cites this paper
• Stability of self-standards: an examination of the content and perceived actualization of self-regulatory guides across age cohorts over time

  2025cites this paper
• Comparative Analysis of Social Cognitive and Neurocognitive Performance Across Autism and Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders

  2025cites this paper
• Correlating the abdominal drawing in manoeuvre between ultrasound imaging, pressure biofeedback and manual palpation measurements in participants with low back pain: An observational cross-sectional study.

  2025cites this paper
• Theta-gamma tACS modulates attention network synchronization, not isolated network performance.

  2025cites this paper
• The impact of complication-sensitive risk models on hospital benchmarking for failure to rescue.

  2025cites this paper
• Comparison of structure-function correlation among IMO visual function analyser and Humphrey field analyser

  2025cites this paper
• Slope unit-based comprehensive geohazard susceptibility assessment: SHAP interpretability and local InSAR deformation analysis

  2025cites this paper
• The Preference to Avoid Self-Experiences Scale: Validation and Association With Complex PTSD and Dissociation

  2025influential citation
• Association of Psychological Resilience With Decelerated Brain Aging in Cognitively Healthy World Trade Center Responders

  2025cites this paper
• Set-aside of grassland field margins enhances buckwheat pollination services in small-holder agricultural landscapes

  2025cites this paper
• Limbic-Sensorimotor Tug of War for the Hippocampus: Dynamic Functional Connectivity as a Transdiagnostic Vulnerability Marker in Offspring of Emotion Dysregulation Patients.

  2025cites this paper
• Optic Nerve Morphology Influences Structure-Function Relationship in Early Glaucoma With and Without High Myopia

  2025cites this paper
• The role of informativity and frequency in shaping word durations in English and in Polish

  2025cites this paper
• Predicting Future Brain Atrophy Based on Longitudinal MRI

  2025cites this paper
• Associations between sibling relationship quality and daily interactions in early adolescence

  2025cites this paper
• Exercise without Weight Loss Prevents Seasonal Decline in Vitamin D Metabolites: The VitaDEx Randomized Controlled Trial

  2025cites this paper
• Influenza RNA fluxes monitoring in wastewater as a complementary epidemiological surveillance indicator: A four-year nationwide study in Luxembourg.

  2025cites this paper
• Modulating cortical excitability and cortical arousal by pupil self-regulation

  2025cites this paper
• Translation and psychometric validation of the Slovak Partner version of the Birth Satisfaction Scale-Revised (BSS-R).

  2025cites this paper
• The Representational Alignment between Humans and Language Models is implicitly driven by a Concreteness Effect

  2025cites this paper
• Self- versus caregiver-reported apathy across neurological disorders

  2025cites this paper