Passive sampling methods for contaminated sediments: Practical guidance for selection, calibration, and implementation

This article provides practical guidance on the use of passive sampling methods (PSMs) that target the freely dissolved concentration (Cfree) for improved exposure assessment of hydrophobic organic chemicals in sediments. Primary considerations for selecting a PSM for a specific application include clear delineation of measurement goals for Cfree, whether laboratory‐based “ex situ” and/or field‐based “in situ” application is desired, and ultimately which PSM is best‐suited to fulfill the measurement objectives. Guidelines for proper calibration and validation of PSMs, including use of provisional values for polymer–water partition coefficients, determination of equilibrium status, and confirmation of nondepletive measurement conditions are defined. A hypothetical example is described to illustrate how the measurement of Cfree afforded by PSMs reduces uncertainty in assessing narcotic toxicity for sediments contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The article concludes with a discussion of future research that will improve the quality and robustness of Cfree measurements using PSMs, providing a sound scientific basis to support risk assessment and contaminated sediment management decisions. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2014;10:210–223. © 2014 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

• Publication year

  2014

• Venue

  Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management

• Publication date

  2014-02-06

• Fields of study

  Medicine, Environmental Science

• Identifiers
  DOI 10.1002/ieam.1507PMID 24288273PMCID 4235463
• External record

  Open on Semantic Scholar

• Source metadata

  Semantic Scholar, PubMed

• No claims are published for this paper.

• No concepts are published for this paper.

• Bioavailability of contaminants in soils and sediments: processes, tools, and applications

  2016cited by this paper
• Validated Test Method 8272: Parent and Alkyl Polycyclic Aromatics in Sediment Pore Water by Solid-Phase Microextraction and Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry in Selected Ion Monitoring Mode

  2015cited by this paper
• Passive sampling methods for contaminated sediments: State of the science for organic contaminants

  2014cited by this paper
• Passive sampling methods for contaminated sediments: Risk assessment and management

  2014cited by this paper
• Long-term PAH monitoring results from the Anacostia River active capping demonstration using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) fibers.

  2013cited by this paper
• Measurement and modeling of activated carbon performance for the sequestration of parent- and alkylated-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in petroleum-impacted sediments.

  2013cited by this paper
• Passive sampling methods for contaminated sediments: Scientific rationale supporting use of freely dissolved concentrations

  2013cited by this paper
• Performance of passive samplers for monitoring estuarine water column concentrations: 2. Emerging contaminants

  2013cited by this paper
• Mechanistic sediment quality guidelines based on contaminant bioavailability: Equilibrium partitioning sediment benchmarks

  2013cited by this paper
• Performance of passive samplers for monitoring estuarine water column concentrations: 1. Contaminants of concern

  2013cited by this paper
• Polyoxymethylene passive samplers to monitor changes in bioavailability and flux of PCBs after activated carbon amendment to sediment in the field.

  2013cited by this paper
• Demonstration and Evaluation of Solid Phase Microextraction for the Assessment of Bioavailability and Contaminant Mobility (User's Manual)

  2012cited by this paper
• Critical review of low-density polyethylene's partitioning and diffusion coefficients for trace organic contaminants and implications for its use as a passive sampler.

  2012cited by this paper
• Advection dominated transport of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in amended sediment caps.

  2012cited by this paper
• Passive sampling to measure baseline dissolved persistent organic pollutant concentrations in the water column of the Palos Verdes Shelf Superfund site.

  2012cited by this paper
• Equilibrium Partitioning Sediment Benchmarks (ESBs) for the Protection of Benthic Organisms: Procedures for the Determination of the Freely Dissolved Interstitial Water Concentrations of Nonionic Organics

  2012cited by this paper
• Does equilibrium passive sampling reflect actual in situ bioaccumulation of PAHs and petroleum hydrocarbon mixtures in aquatic worms?

  2012cited by this paper
• Sensitive equilibrium sampling to study polychlorinated biphenyl disposition in Baltic Sea sediment.

  2012influential reference
• Assessing the bioavailability of complex petroleum hydrocarbon mixtures in sediments.

  2011cited by this paper
• Measuring picogram per liter concentrations of freely dissolved parent and alkyl PAHs (PAH-34), using passive sampling with polyoxymethylene.

  2011cited by this paper
• In situ measurement of PCB pore water concentration profiles in activated carbon-amended sediment using passive samplers.

  2011influential reference
• Predicting bioavailability of PAHs and PCBs with porewater concentrations measured by solid‐phase microextraction fibers

  2011influential reference
• Equilibrium sampling of persistent and bioaccumulative compounds in soil and sediment: comparison of two approaches to determine equilibrium partitioning concentrations in lipids.

  2011cited by this paper
• Simultaneous estimation of glass-water distribution and PDMS-water partition coefficients of hydrophobic organic compounds using simple batch method.

  2011cited by this paper
• Comparison of polymeric samplers for accurately assessing PCBs in pore waters

  2011influential reference
• Particle-scale measurement of PAH aqueous equilibrium partitioning in impacted sediments.

  2010cited by this paper
• Using solid phase micro extraction to determine salting-out (Setschenow) constants for hydrophobic organic chemicals.

  2010cited by this paper
• AN ECOLOGICAL RISK-BASED CLEANUP STRATEGY FOR CONTAMINATED SEDIMENTS IN A FRESHWATER BROOK

  2010cited by this paper
• POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYL SORPTION TO ACTIVATED CARBON AND THE ATTENUATION CAUSED BY SEDIMENT

  2010cited by this paper
• Bioaccumulation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans in E. fetida from floodplain soils and the effect of activated carbon amendment.

  2010influential reference
• Assessment of PDMS-water partition coefficients: implications for passive environmental sampling of hydrophobic organic compounds.

  2010cited by this paper
• PAH bioavailability in field sediments: comparing different methods for predicting in situ bioaccumulation.

  2009influential reference
• Polymer-water partition coefficients of hydrophobic compounds for passive sampling: application of cosolvent models for validation.

  2009influential reference
• Development and evaluation of reverse polyethylene samplers for marine phase ii whole‐sediment toxicity identification evaluations

  2009influential reference
• Measurement of freely dissolved PAH concentrations in sediment beds using passive sampling with low-density polyethylene strips.

  2009influential reference
• Using performance reference compounds in polyethylene passive samplers to deduce sediment porewater concentrations for numerous target chemicals.

  2009influential reference
• A passive sampler based on solid‐phase microextraction for quantifying hydrophobic organic contaminants in sediment pore water

  2009influential reference
• Review of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) in coastal zones of the Southeast and Gulf Coast regions of the United States with management implications.

  2009influential reference
• Temperature-dependent bioaccumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

  2009cited by this paper
• Comparing polychaete and polyethylene uptake to assess sediment resuspension effects on PCB bioavailability.

  2009cited by this paper
• Measuring low picogram per liter concentrations of freely dissolved polychlorinated biphenyls in sediment pore water using passive sampling with polyoxymethylene.

  2009influential reference
• Predicting Sediment Toxicity at Former Manufactured Gas Plants Using Equilibrium Partitioning Benchmarks for PAH Mixtures

  2009cited by this paper
• Demonstration and Evaluation of Solid Phase Microextraction for the Assessment of Bioavailability and Contaminant Mobility

  2008cited by this paper
• Field testing of equilibrium passive samplers to determine freely dissolved native polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations

  2008cited by this paper
• Field deployment of polyethylene devices to measure PCB concentrations in pore water of contaminated sediment.

  2008influential reference
• Environmental Organic Chemistry, 2nd Edition

  2007cited by this paper
• Polyethylene devices: passive samplers for measuring dissolved hydrophobic organic compounds in aquatic environments.

  2007cited by this paper
• Greatly reduced bioavailability and toxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to Hyalella azteca in sediments from manufactured‐gas plant sites

  2007cited by this paper
• Two complementary sides of bioavailability: Accessibility and chemical activity of organic contaminants in sediments and soils

  2006influential reference
• Monitors of organic chemicals in the environment

  2006cited by this paper
• Prediction of the Solubility, Activity Coefficient and Liquid/Liquid Partition Coefficient of Organic Compounds

  2004cited by this paper
• Use of passive samplers to mimic uptake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by benthic polychaetes.

  2004cited by this paper
• PAH sorption mechanism and partitioning behavior in lampblack-impacted soils from former oil-gas plant sites.

  2003cited by this paper
• Temperature-dependent uptake rates of nonpolar organic compounds by semipermeable membrane devices and low-density polyethylene membranes.

  2003influential reference
• Prediction of Setschenow constants.

  2003cited by this paper
• Development of the permeability/performance reference compound approach for in situ calibration of semipermeable membrane devices.

  2002influential reference
• Polyoxymethylene solid phase extraction as a partitioning method for hydrophobic organic chemicals in sediment and soot.

  2001cited by this paper
• Relationship between PCB Desorption Equilibrium, Kinetics, and Availability during Land Biotreatment

  2000cited by this paper
• Determination of uptake kinetics (sampling rates) by lipid-containing semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in water

  1999influential reference
• Lipid-containing semipermeable membrane devices for monitoring organic contaminants in water

  1993cited by this paper
• Environmental Organic Chemistry

  1993cited by this paper
• Technical basis for establishing sediment quality criteria for nonionic organic chemicals using equilibrium partitioning

  1991cited by this paper
• Octanol-water partition coefficients of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners

  1988influential reference
• Organic Chemistry (2nd Edition)

  1964cited by this paper
• Test Method for Determination of Parent and Alkyl Polycyclic Aromatics in Sediment Pore Water Using Solid-Phase Microextraction and Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry in Selected Ion Monitoring Mode

  year unknowncited by this paper
• Polyethylene Devices : Passive Samplers for Measuring Dissolved Hydrophobic Organic Compounds in Aquatic Environments

  year unknowninfluential reference

• Modeling time scale of integration in equilibrium passive sampling.

  2025cites this paper
• Tracking Traffic-derived Benzothiazoles and Benzotriazoles in Urban Air and Water Near Roadways: A Multi-Phase Passive Sampling Approach for Risk Assessment.

  2025cites this paper
• Polymer-water partition coefficients of butyl rubber and polydimethylsiloxane passive samplers for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using the co-solvent method

  2025cites this paper
• Contaminated stormwater sediment source tracking for polychlorinated biphenyls in an urban watershed of the Chesapeake Bay, United States.

  2025cites this paper
• Impact of turbidity and hydrophobicity on PAH release from sediment assessed by passive sampling

  2025cites this paper
• Thermodynamic exposure reductions of PCBs available to Lumbriculus variegatus in Lake Erie region sediments amended with activated carbon

  2025cites this paper
• Employing Site-Specific Sediment Toxicity Tests to Develop Remediation Goals for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons at a Manufactured Gas Plant Site.

  2025cites this paper
• Particle size-based evaluation of stormwater control measures in reducing solids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

  2025cites this paper
• Evaluation of multilayer co-extrusion film and other three plastic membranes as passive samplers for determination of polyhalogenated carbazoles in water.

  2025cites this paper
• Evaluation of Bioavailable Tributyltin in the Sediment–Porewater System of Industrialized Korean Bays Using Ex Situ Passive Sampling and Partitioning Models

  2025cites this paper
• Feasibility of Short-Term and Flow-Weighted Long-Term Measurements Using Equilibrium Passive Sampling

  2025cites this paper
• Spatial Distribution and Potential Toxicity of PAHs in Contaminated Sediments in Korea Using a Passive Sampler-Based Approach.

  2025cites this paper
• Potential Hazards of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Great Lakes Tributaries Using Water Column and Porewater Passive Samplers and Sediment Equilibrium Partitioning

  2024cites this paper
• Developing a consistent model for predicting equilibration in polymeric passive samplers across various HOC classes in sediment pore water.

  2024cites this paper
• Principles of passive sampling for ex situ measurement of hydrophobic organic compounds in sediment: Key considerations on dilution, depletion, and equilibrium.

  2024influential citation
• Direct visualization of pyrene diffusion in polyethylene and polyoxymethylene passive samplers.

  2024cites this paper
• Long-term monitoring and modeling of PAHs in capped sediments at the Grand Calumet River.

  2023cites this paper
• Influence of water exchange rates on toxicity and bioaccumulation of hydrophobic organic chemicals in sediment toxicity tests.

  2023cites this paper
• Concurrent assessment of diffusive and advective PAH movement strongly affected by temporal and spatial changes.

  2023cites this paper
• Three-dimensional path planning for a novel sediment sampler in ocean environment based on an improved mutation operator genetic algorithm

  2023cites this paper
• Development and testing of novel functionalized polymeric thin-films for equilibrium passive sampling of PFAS compounds in water

  2023cites this paper
• Uptake of hydrophobic organic compounds, including OCPs and Uptake of hydrophobic organic compounds, including OCPs and PBDEs, and perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in fish and blue crabs of PBDEs, and perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in fish and blue crabs of the

  2023cites this paper
• Sediment recontamination potential and biological impacts of hydrophobic organics from stormwater in a mixed-use watershed.

  2023cites this paper
• Passive Sampling-Based versus Conventional-Based Metrics for Evaluating Remediation Efficacy at Contaminated Sediment Sites: A Review.

  2023cites this paper
• Review of DDT, DDE, DDD, DDMU and DDMS Toxicity Data for Organisms Used in Estuarine and Marine Sediment Toxicity Tests

  2023cites this paper
• Evaluating the Sorption Kinetics of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Powdered and Granular Activated Carbon.

  2023cites this paper
• Appraisal on the role of passive sampling for more integrative frameworks on the environmental risk assessment of contaminants.

  2023cites this paper
• Lab-scale biodegradation assay using passive samplers to determine microorganisms’ ability to reduce polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) volatilization from contaminated sediment

  2023cites this paper
• A novel antibody-based biosensor method for the rapid measurement of PAH contamination in oysters

  2022cites this paper
• Refining Sources of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in the Back River Watershed, Baltimore, Maryland, 2018–2020

  2022cites this paper
• Techniques for monitoring bioavailable organic pollutants in sediment: Application of poly(methyl methacrylate) as a passive sampler.

  2022cites this paper
• Assessing bioaccumulation potential of sediment associated fipronil degradates in oligochaete Lumbriculus variegatus based on passive sampler measured bioavailable concentration.

  2022cites this paper
• Field Validation of a Novel Passive Sampler for Dissolved PFAS in Surface Waters

  2022cites this paper
• Strategy for sediment quality assessment in Switzerland

  2022cites this paper
• Equilibrium Porewater Measurement of PCBs and PAHs Using Direct Water Extraction and Comparison with Passive Sampling

  2022cites this paper
• Uptake Mechanisms of a Novel, Activated Carbon‐Based Equilibrium Passive Sampler for Estimating Porewater Methylmercury

  2022cites this paper
• Seasonal trends of PCBs in air over Washington DC reveal localized urban sources and the influence of Anacostia River.

  2022cites this paper
• Interlaboratory Study of Polyethylene and Polydimethylsiloxane Polymeric Samplers for Ex Situ Measurement of Freely Dissolved Hydrophobic Organic Compounds in Sediment Porewater

  2022cites this paper
• Polyethylene–Water and Polydimethylsiloxane–Water Partition Coefficients for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Polychlorinated Biphenyls: Influence of Polymer Source and Proposed Best Available Values

  2022influential citation
• Bioavailability of legacy and current-use pesticides in juvenile Chinook salmon habitat of the Sacramento River watershed: Importance of sediment characteristics and extraction techniques.

  2022cites this paper
• In Situ Passive Sampling to Monitor Long Term Cap Effectiveness at a Tidally Influenced Shoreline

  2022cites this paper
• Evaluation of a rapid biosensor tool for measuring PAH availability in petroleum-impacted sediment

  2021cites this paper
• Evaluating sedimentary PAH bioavailability based on equilibrium partitioning and passive sampling at the Dover Gas Light Superfund Site (Dover, Delaware, USA)

  2021cites this paper
• Relook on the Linear Free Energy Relationships Describing the Partitioning Behavior of Diverse Chemicals for Polyethylene Water Passive Samplers

  2021cites this paper
• New sampling methods for detecting pharmaceutical residues in seawater and sediments

  2021cites this paper
• An ecotoxicological approach to microplastics on terrestrial and aquatic organisms: A systematic review in assessment, monitoring and biological impact.

  2021cites this paper
• Stochastic Framework for Addressing Chemical Partitioning and Bioavailability in Contaminated Sediment Assessment and Management.

  2021cites this paper
• Incorporating Oil / Water Partitioning in Risk Calculations for PAHs in Petroleum Impacted Soils and Sediments

  2021cites this paper
• Kinetic Passive Sampling: In Situ Calibration Using the Contaminant Mass Measured in Parallel Samplers with Different Thicknesses.

  2020cites this paper
• Versatile in silico modeling of partition coefficients of organic compounds in polydimethylsiloxane using linear and nonlinear methods.

  2020cites this paper
• Passive Sampling for Determination of the Dissolved Concentrations and Chemical Activities of Organic Contaminants in Soil and Sediment Pore Waters

  2020cites this paper
• Effects of sediment manipulation on freely dissolved concentrations of hydrophobic organic chemicals.

  2020cites this paper
• Treatment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Oil Sands Process-Affected Water with a Surface Flow Treatment Wetland

  2020cites this paper
• Evaluating polymeric sampling as a tool for predicting the bioaccumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls by fish and shellfish.

  2020cites this paper
• Assessing Biota Accumulation Due to Contamination of Sediments by Storm Water Heavy Metals

  2020cites this paper
• Bioavailability assessment in activated carbon treated coastal sediment with in situ and ex situ porewater measurements.

  2020cites this paper
• Comparison of In Situ and Ex Situ Equilibrium Passive Sampling for Measuring Freely Dissolved Concentrations of Parent and Alkylated Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Sediments

  2020cites this paper
• In Situ Investigation of Performance Reference Compound‐Based Estimates of PCB Equilibrated Passive Sampler Concentrations and Cfree in the Marine Water Column

  2020cites this paper
• Assessing Benthic Bioaccumulation of Polychlorinated Dioxins/Furans and Polychlorinated Biphenyls in the Lower Passaic River (NJ, USA) Based on In Situ Passive Sampling

  2020influential citation
• Ex situ determination of freely dissolved concentrations of hydrophobic organic chemicals in sediments and soils: basis for interpreting toxicity and assessing bioavailability, risks and remediation necessity

  2020cites this paper
• Ecological Effects of Chemical Contaminants Adsorbed to Microplastics

  2020cites this paper
• Development of polyoxymethylene passive sampler for assessing air concentrations of PCBs at a confined disposal facility (CDF).

  2020cites this paper
• Assessment of marine sediment remediation efficiency with SPME-based passive sampling measurement.

  2020cites this paper
• Uptake of hydrophobic organic compounds, including organochlorine pesticides, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and perfluoroalkyl acids in fish and blue crabs of the lower Passaic River, New Jersey, USA

  2019cites this paper
• An exponential model based new approach for correcting aqueous concentrations of hydrophobic organic chemicals measured by polyethylene passive samplers.

  2019cites this paper
• Four decades since the ban, old urban wastewater treatment plant remains a dominant source of PCBs to the environment.

  2019cites this paper
• A Pilot-Scale Field Study: In Situ Treatment of PCB-Impacted Sediments with Bioamended Activated Carbon.

  2019cites this paper
• Review of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Sediment Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Benthic Life

  2019cites this paper
• Analytical progress and challenges for the detection of oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon transformation products in aqueous and soil environmental matrices: A review

  2019cites this paper
• Impacts of activated carbon amendments, added from the start or after five months, on the microbiology and outcomes of crude oil bioremediation in soil

  2019cites this paper
• An analytical model for the fate and transport of performance reference compounds and target compounds around cylindrical passive samplers.

  2019cites this paper
• Stabilization of hydrophobic organic contaminants in sediments by natural zeolites: bioavailability-based assessment of efficacy using equilibrium passive sampling

  2019cites this paper
• Soil-Atmosphere Exchange of PAHs: The Determination of Concentration Gradients with Passive Samplers

  2019cites this paper
• Validation studies on activated carbon fiber passive sampler for PCDD/Fs and PCBs in water.

  2019cites this paper
• Equilibrium Sampling of Hydrophobic Organic Contaminants in Sediments

  2019cites this paper
• Toward Sustainable Environmental Quality: Priority Research Questions for North America

  2019cites this paper
• Aqueous‐Phase Sampling with NAPL Exclusion Using Ceramic Porous Cups

  2018cites this paper
• DDT and related compounds in pore water of shallow sediments on the Palos Verdes Shelf, California, USA

  2018cites this paper
• Advancing the Use of Passive Sampling in Risk Assessment and Management of Sediments Contaminated with Hydrophobic Organic Chemicals: Results of an International Ex Situ Passive Sampling Interlaboratory Comparison

  2018cites this paper
• Comparison of freely dissolved concentrations of PAHs in contaminated pot soils under saturated and unsaturated water conditions.

  2018cites this paper
• Advancing the Use of Passive Sampling in Risk Assessment and Management of Sediments Contaminated with Hydrophobic Organic Chemicals : Results of an Citation

  2018cites this paper
• Investigating the Effect of Bioirrigation on In Situ Porewater Concentrations and Fluxes of Polychlorinated Biphenyls Using Passive Samplers.

  2018cites this paper
• Nanofiber-enabled multi-target passive sampling device for legacy and emerging organic contaminants

  2018cites this paper
• Enhanced biochars can match activated carbon performance in sediments with high native bioavailability and low final porewater PCB concentrations.

  2018cites this paper
• Micro- and nanoplastic in the aquatic environment : from rivers to whales

  2018cites this paper
• Development and evaluation of a new diffusive gradients in thin-films technique for measuring organotin compounds in coastal sediment pore water.

  2018cites this paper
• Using performance reference compounds to compare mass transfer calibration methodologies in passive samplers deployed in the water column

  2018cites this paper
• Application of modeling and analytical methods for characterizing aquatic toxicity and toxicokinetics of petroleum substances

  2018cites this paper
• Evaluation of different methods for assessing bioavailability of DDT residues during soil remediation.

  2018cites this paper
• Performance of passive sampling with low-density polyethylene membranes for the estimation of freely dissolved DDx concentrations in lake environments.

  2018cites this paper
• A Chemical Activity Approach to Exposure and Risk Assessment of Chemicals

  2018influential citation
• Persistent reductions in the bioavailability of PCBs at a tidally inundated Phragmites australis marsh amended with activated carbon

  2018cites this paper
• Evaluation of passive sampling polymers and nonequilibrium adjustment methods in a multiyear surveillance of sediment porewater PCBs

  2018influential citation
• Emerging investigator series: development and application of polymeric electrospun nanofiber mats as equilibrium-passive sampler media for organic compounds.

  2017cites this paper
• Monitoring Environmental Quality of Marine Sediment

  2017cites this paper
• The Effect of Microplastic on the Uptake of Chemicals by the Lugworm Arenicola marina (L.) under Environmentally Relevant Exposure Conditions

  2017cites this paper
• Development of a passive sensor for measuring vertical cumulative water and solute mass fluxes in lake sediments and streambeds

  2017cites this paper
• Use of biochar as alternative sorbent for the active capping of oil contaminated sediments

  2017cites this paper
• Comparing polyethylene and polyoxymethylene passive samplers for measuring sediment porewater concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls: Mutual validation and possible correction by polymer-polymer partition experiment.

  2017cites this paper
• Bioturbation transports secondary microplastics to deeper layers in soft marine sediments of the northern Baltic Sea.

  2017cites this paper