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Imidacloprid (IMI) toxicity in fishes: A review

Harkrishan Kamboj,S. Kumari,Nivedan Bhardwaj

Published 2025 in Journal of Applied and Natural Science

ABSTRACT

Over the last few decades, the extensive application of pesticides has increased agricultural productivity. Neonicotinoid’s (NEOs), a fourth generation of pesticides that arose after organophosphates, pyrethroids, and carbamates, are frequently utilized worldwide. Neonicotinoids have been shown to leach from soil and end up in groundwater or runoff, which badly affects the health of various animals. Among these, imidacloprid (IMI) was the first viable neonicotinoid. IMI is a colorless crystal having the chemical family chloronicotinyl (Neonicotinoid) with a photolytic half-life of 1.2h in deionized water irradiated to UV rays and 126 min in tap water formulated as confidor insecticide. Its great potency at low dosage, low volatility, and high-water solubility (hydrophilic) with low bioaccumulation, nevertheless badly affects the body organs (liver, kidney, gills, etc.) of exposed organisms. IMI widely poses significant threats to aquatic ecosystems, particularly fish, due to its potential toxicity. Understanding the multi-dimensional impacts of IMI toxicity in fish is vital to formulating mitigating plans and suitable pesticide alternatives to safeguard aquatic environments. This review article discusses the long-term effects of IMI on fishes, including disruptions in developmental processes, biochemical alterations, oxidative stress, behavior and alteration in various enzyme activities. Despite numerous studies on IMI toxicity in fish, there is a lack of a comprehensive review that compares different aspects of its toxicity in different fish species. Therefore, this review aims to bridge that gap in current knowledge about IMI toxicity in various fish species and provides a strong basis for future research to safeguard aquatic ecosystems from its harmful effects. In addition, the practical importance of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and the protective potential of various antioxidants against pesticide toxicity have also been highlighted.   

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