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What is there to gain and lose from plant-derived nano-enabled pesticides: Eugenol-loaded nanocarriers exert long-lived effects on non-target freshwater invertebrate communities.

Tom A. P. Nederstigt,Victor N Huijer,Dennis Planjer,Felice J M Eekhout,S. H. Barmentlo,W. Peijnenburg,M. Vijver

Published 2025 in Journal of Hazardous Materials

ABSTRACT

Nanocarriers are attracting growing interest as transport and delivery systems for agrochemicals. Non-target effects associated with their use have however remained characterized to only a limited extent. The current study comprised a long-term impact assessment of eugenol-loaded clay nanocarriers on naturally established communities of freshwater macroinvertebrates, zooplankton, and emerging insects. Assessments took place in outdoor mesocosms to which eugenol was applied at nominal concentrations of 20 and 200 μg L-1, and effects from the nanocarrier-based formulation were evaluated at concentrations equivalent to those from its active substance. Both concentrations of eugenol adversely affected turnover, replacement, and emergence rates across various taxa, and effects were most pronounced and long-lived when eugenol was applied via the nanocarrier-based formulation. Effects on zooplankton communities and insect emergence rates persisted throughout the 49-day experimental period, while effects on macroinvertebrate communities were limited to the first 7 days following treatment application. These findings underscore the need for further evaluations of exposure pathways of nanocarrier-bound substances, and in addition highlight the importance of comparative assessments of non-target impacts from nanocarrier-based formulations with those of their active substance.

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