The Forces Behind Cell Movement

Cell movement is a complex phenomenon primarily driven by the actin network beneath the cell membrane, and can be divided into three general components: protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and deadhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each of these steps is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton. This review examines the specific physics underlying these phases of cell movement and the origins of the forces that drive locomotion.

• Publication year

  2007

• Venue

  International Journal on Biological Sciences

• Publication date

  2007-06-01

• Fields of study

  Biology, Medicine, Physics

• Identifiers
  DOI 10.7150/IJBS.3.303PMID 17589565PMCID 1893118
• External record

  Open on Semantic Scholar

• Source metadata

  Semantic Scholar, PubMed

• No claims are published for this paper.

• No concepts are published for this paper.

• Measuring cell forces by a photoelastic method.

  2007cited by this paper
• Cell traction force and measurement methods

  2007cited by this paper
• Mechanics and dynamics of actin-driven thin membrane protrusions.

  2006cited by this paper
• Nonmuscle myosin IIA-dependent force inhibits cell spreading and drives F-actin flow.

  2006cited by this paper
• Weak force stalls protrusion at the leading edge of the lamellipodium.

  2006cited by this paper
• Contractility and retrograde flow in lamellipodium motion

  2006cited by this paper
• Myosin II functions in actin-bundle turnover in neuronal growth cones

  2006cited by this paper
• Direct measurement of the lamellipodial protrusive force in a migrating cell

  2006cited by this paper
• Neuronal growth: a bistable stochastic process.

  2006influential reference
• On the edge: modeling protrusion.

  2006cited by this paper
• Role of fascin in filopodial protrusion

  2006cited by this paper
• Spatiotemporal feedback between actomyosin and focal-adhesion systems optimizes rapid cell migration.

  2006influential reference
• Cell migration through small gaps

  2006influential reference
• Stress release drives symmetry breaking for actin-based movement

  2005cited by this paper
• Thermal fluctuations of grafted microtubules provide evidence of a length-dependent persistence length

  2005cited by this paper
• Computational model for cell migration in three-dimensional matrices.

  2005cited by this paper
• Loading history determines the velocity of actin-network growth

  2005cited by this paper
• Force generation by dynamic microtubules.

  2005cited by this paper
• Tracking retrograde flow in keratocytes: news from the front.

  2005cited by this paper
• Biochemistry and biomechanics of cell motility.

  2005cited by this paper
• MSP dynamics drives nematode sperm locomotion.

  2005cited by this paper
• Forces generated during actin-based propulsion: a direct measurement by micromanipulation.

  2004cited by this paper
• Slipping or gripping? Fluorescent speckle microscopy in fish keratocytes reveals two different mechanisms for generating a retrograde flow of actin.

  2004influential reference
• Force generation by cytoskeletal filament end-tracking proteins.

  2004cited by this paper
• An introduction to cell motility for the physical scientist

  2004cited by this paper
• Crawling toward a unified model of cell mobility: spatial and temporal regulation of actin dynamics.

  2004cited by this paper
• The role of substrate curvature in actin-based pushing forces.

  2004cited by this paper
• Intermediate filaments are dynamic and motile elements of cellular architecture

  2004cited by this paper
• Temporal variations in cell migration and traction during fibroblast-mediated gel compaction.

  2003cited by this paper
• Retraction in Amoeboid Cell Motility Powered by Cytoskeletal Dynamics

  2003cited by this paper
• Biomimetic systems for studying actin-based motility.

  2003influential reference
• The force-velocity relationship for the actin-based motility of Listeria monocytogenes.

  2003influential reference
• Polymer motors: pushing out the front and pulling up the back.

  2003influential reference
• Retrograde flow rate is increased in growth cones from myosin IIB knockout mice

  2003cited by this paper
• A biomimetic motility assay provides insight into the mechanism of actin-based motility

  2003influential reference
• Modeling the role of myosin 1c in neuronal growth cone turning.

  2003cited by this paper
• Compression forces generated by actin comet tails on lipid vesicles

  2003cited by this paper
• Motion of an adhesive gel in a swelling gradient: a mechanism for cell locomotion.

  2003cited by this paper
• Force generation by actin polymerization II: the elastic ratchet and tethered filaments.

  2003influential reference
• Actin-based motility: from molecules to movement.

  2003cited by this paper
• Probing polymerization forces by using actin-propelled lipid vesicles

  2003cited by this paper
• Cell Migration: Integrating Signals from Front to Back

  2003cited by this paper
• Probing the kinesin reaction cycle with a 2D optical force clamp

  2003cited by this paper
• Computational analysis of F-actin turnover in cortical actin meshworks using fluorescent speckle microscopy.

  2003cited by this paper
• Growth velocities of branched actin networks.

  2003influential reference
• Cellular motility driven by assembly and disassembly of actin filaments.

  2003cited by this paper
• Regulation of actin dynamics in rapidly moving cells: a quantitative analysis.

  2002cited by this paper
• Active fluidization of polymer networks through molecular motors

  2002cited by this paper
• Single-Molecule Speckle Analysis of Actin Filament Turnover in Lamellipodia

  2002cited by this paper
• Regulation of substrate adhesion dynamics during cell motility.

  2002cited by this paper
• MECHANISTICS OF AMOEBOID LOCOMOTION: SIGNAL TO FORCES

  2002cited by this paper
• Myosin 1c and myosin IIB serve opposing roles in lamellipodial dynamics of the neuronal growth cone

  2002cited by this paper
• The dynamics of actin-based motility depend on surface parameters

  2002cited by this paper
• Multifaceted physiological response allows yeast to adapt to the loss of the signal recognition particle-dependent protein-targeting pathway.

  2001cited by this paper
• Micron-scale positioning of features influences the rate of polymorphonuclear leukocyte migration.

  2001cited by this paper
• Mechanism of Actin-Based Motility

  2001cited by this paper
• Transmembrane crosstalk between the extracellular matrix--cytoskeleton crosstalk.

  2001cited by this paper
• Rho family proteins: coordinating cell responses.

  2001cited by this paper
• Self-organization of a propulsive actin network as an evolutionary process

  2001cited by this paper
• Growth of branched actin networks against obstacles.

  2001influential reference
• Rho GTPases and cell migration.

  2001cited by this paper
• Distinct roles of frontal and rear cell-substrate adhesions in fibroblast migration.

  2001cited by this paper
• Traction force microscopy of migrating normal and H-ras transformed 3T3 fibroblasts.

  2001cited by this paper
• Growing an actin gel on spherical surfaces.

  2000cited by this paper
• Molecular mechanisms controlling actin filament dynamics in nonmuscle cells.

  2000cited by this paper
• Substrate-cytoskeletal coupling as a mechanism for the regulation of growth cone motility and guidance.

  2000cited by this paper
• Ca2+-dependent myosin II activation is required for uropod retraction during neutrophil migration.

  2000cited by this paper
• The clutch hypothesis revisited: ascribing the roles of actin-associated proteins in filopodial protrusion in the nerve growth cone.

  2000cited by this paper
• Cell Spreading and Lamellipodial Extension Rate Is Regulated by Membrane Tension

  2000cited by this paper
• Acting like Actin: The Dynamics of the Nematode Major Sperm Protein (Msp) Cytoskeleton Indicate a Push-Pull Mechanism for Amoeboid Cell Motility

  2000cited by this paper
• Acting like Actin

  2000cited by this paper
• Short-term binding of fibroblasts to fibronectin: optical tweezers experiments and probabilistic analysis

  2000cited by this paper
• The Polymerization Motor

  2000cited by this paper
• A cell's sense of direction.

  1999cited by this paper
• Two components of actin-based retrograde flow in sea urchin coelomocytes.

  1999cited by this paper
• Self-polarization and directional motility of cytoplasm.

  1999cited by this paper
• Separation of Propulsive and Adhesive Traction Stresses in Locomoting Keratocytes

  1999cited by this paper
• Stresses at the cell-to-substrate interface during locomotion of fibroblasts.

  1999cited by this paper
• Myosin II-independent F-actin flow contributes to cell locomotion in dictyostelium.

  1999cited by this paper
• Tension modulates cell surface motility: A scanning acoustic microscopy study.

  1999cited by this paper
• Neutrophil F-actin and myosin but not microtubules functionally regulate transepithelial migration induced by interleukin 8 across a cultured intestinal epithelial monolayer.

  1999cited by this paper
• Viscoelasticity of Concentrated Isotropic Solutions of Semiflexible Polymers. 1. Model and Stress Tensor

  1998cited by this paper
• Measurement of the force-velocity relation for growing microtubules.

  1997cited by this paper
• Analysis of the Actin–Myosin II System in Fish Epidermal Keratocytes: Mechanism of Cell Body Translocation

  1997cited by this paper
• A micromachined device provides a new bend on fibroblast traction forces.

  1997cited by this paper
• Cell motility driven by actin polymerization.

  1996influential reference
• Essential role of filopodia in chemotropic turning of nerve growth cone induced by a glutamate gradient

  1996cited by this paper
• Actin-based cell motility and cell locomotion.

  1996cited by this paper
• Myosin drives retrograde F-actin flow in neuronal growth cones.

  1996cited by this paper
• A mechanical function of myosin II in cell motility.

  1995cited by this paper
• Growth cone advance is inversely proportional to retrograde F-actin flow.

  1995cited by this paper
• Traction forces in locomoting cells.

  1995cited by this paper
• Single myosin molecule mechanics: piconewton forces and nanometre steps

  1994cited by this paper
• Traction forces generated by locomoting keratocytes

  1994cited by this paper
• Gradients in the concentration and assembly of myosin II in living fibroblasts during locomotion and fiber transport.

  1993cited by this paper
• Flexural rigidity of microtubules and actin filaments measured from thermal fluctuations in shape

  1993cited by this paper
• Cytoskeletal dynamics and nerve growth.

  1988cited by this paper
• Molecular Cell Biology

  1986cited by this paper
• The Function of Microtubules in Directional Cell Movement a

  1986cited by this paper
• The Croonian Lecture, 1978 - The crawling movement of metazoan cells

  1980cited by this paper

• Geometry of disordered porous environments regulates cell migration.

  2026cites this paper
• Two-lane track geometry facilitates coordination of collective cell migration.

  2025cites this paper
• Durotaxis and extracellular matrix degradation promote the clustering of cancer cells

  2025cites this paper
• Reticular network as the lymph nodes railroad system: T cells migration modelling by the free energy minimization technique

  2025cites this paper
• Elucidating the physicochemical processes of light-activated rotary motors embedded in lipid membranes

  2025cites this paper
• Effect of Pulsed Laser Biomimetic Patterns on Surface Properties and Cell Migration of Titanium Alloys

  2025cites this paper
• Nano‐Topography Enhanced Topological‐Cell‐Analysis in Radiation‐Therapy

  2025cites this paper
• ROCK2 Downregulation in Pediatric Medulloblastoma Increases Migration and Predicts the Involvement of SHH Non-canonical Signaling

  2025cites this paper
• Cellular and Nuclear Forces: An Overview.

  2025cites this paper
• An advanced microfluidic platform for assessment of DOX uptake by MCF-7 cells inside microenvironment mimicking blood capillary networks

  2025cites this paper
• On growth and form of animal behavior

  2025cites this paper
• Haemocyte motility: a marker of inflammation in Mytilus sp.

  2025cites this paper
• A multiscale theory for mesenchymal cell migration in straight or curved channel confinement

  2025cites this paper
• Deep learning reveals how cells pull, buckle, and navigate fibrous environments.

  2025cites this paper
• Growth Suppression and Selective Disruption of F-Actin by α-Santalol in Human Melanoma Cells

  2025cites this paper
• Does nematic order allow groups of elongated cells to sense electric fields better?

  2024cites this paper
• Gears of life: A primer on the simple machines that shape the embryo.

  2024cites this paper
• The role of elasticity on adhesion and clustering of neurons on soft surfaces

  2024cites this paper
• The metaphysics of mechanisms: an ontic structural realist perspective

  2024cites this paper
• An innovative cellular medicine approach via the utilization of novel nanotechnology-based biomechatronic platforms as a label-free biomarker for early melanoma diagnosis

  2024cites this paper
• Simple and Cost-Effective Generation of 3D Cell Sheets and Spheroids Using Curvature-Controlled Paraffin Wax Substrates

  2024cites this paper
• Connexin 30 locally controls actin cytoskeleton and mechanical remodeling in motile astrocytes

  2024cites this paper
• A continuum mechanical model of cell motion driven by a biphasic traction stress

  2024cites this paper
• A survey on automated cell tracking: challenges and solutions

  2024cites this paper
• Comparative Analysis of Traction Forces in Normal and Glaucomatous Trabecular Meshwork Cells within a 3D, Active Fluid-Structure Interaction Culture Environment.

  2024cites this paper
• The maximum size of cell-aggregates is determined by the competition between the strain energy and the binding energy of cells

  2024cites this paper
• Mesenchymal cell migration on one-dimensional micropatterns

  2024cites this paper
• Mechanical Analysis of Cell Migration Using Hybrid Structural Optimization

  2024cites this paper
• Cell motility modes are selected by the interplay of mechanosensitive adhesion and membrane tension

  2023cites this paper
• Natural antioxidants inhibit oxidative stress-induced changes in the morphology and motility of cells

  2023cites this paper
• Quantitative phase imaging for tracing the motion of waveguide trapped bead particle

  2023cites this paper
• Effect of the Rho-Kinase/ROCK Signaling Pathway on Cytoskeleton Components

  2023cites this paper
• A multiscale theory for spreading and migration of adhesion-reinforced mesenchymal cells

  2023cites this paper
• A phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase inhibits Ras activation and regulates chemorepulsion in Dictyostelium discoideum

  2023cites this paper
• Microenvironments Matter: Advances in Brain-on-Chip

  2023influential citation
• Integrin expression and extracellular matrix adhesion of septoclasts, pericytes, and endothelial cells at the chondro‐osseous junction and the metaphysis of the proximal tibia in young mice

  2023cites this paper
• Zwitterions fine-tune interactions in electrolyte solutions

  2023cites this paper
• 1D confinement mimicking microvessel geometry controls pericyte shape and motility

  2023cites this paper
• Marker and Motion Guided Deep Networks for Cell Segmentation and Detection Using Weakly Supervised Microscopy Data

  2023cites this paper
• Dynamic Traction Force in Trabecular Meshwork Cells: A 2D Culture Model for Normal and Glaucomatous States.

  2023cites this paper
• Interplay Between Mechanosensitive Adhesions and Membrane Tension Regulates Cell Motility

  2023cites this paper
• Actin polymerization and depolymerization in developing vertebrates

  2023cites this paper
• β-Hydroxybutyrate impairs the directionality of migrating neutrophil through inhibiting the autophagy-dependent degradation of Cdc42 and Rac1 in ketotic cows.

  2023cites this paper
• The Energetic Landscape of Catch Bonds in TCR Interfaces.

  2023cites this paper
• The free energy landscape of small-world networks of cells.

  2023cites this paper
• Migration of an active colloidal cell in inhomogeneous environments.

  2022cites this paper
• Controlled assembly of retinal cells on fractal and Euclidean electrodes

  2022cites this paper
• Cytoskeletal dynamics regulates stromal invasion behavior of distinct liver cancer subtypes

  2022cites this paper
• The lived experiences and psychosocial impact of hearing loss on the quality of life of adults with Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis

  2022cites this paper
• A multiscale whole-cell theory for mechano-sensitive migration on viscoelastic substrates

  2022cites this paper
• Chemical Interrogation of Nuclear Size Identifies Compounds with Cancer Cell Line-Specific Effects on Migration and Invasion

  2022cites this paper
• Cell behaviors within a confined adhesive area fabricated using novel micropatterning methods

  2022cites this paper
• A Mathematical Analysis of Focal Adhesion Lifetimes and Their Effect on Cell Motility.

  2022cites this paper
• Physiological roles of hydrogen sulfide in mammalian cells, tissues and organs.

  2022cites this paper
• On the Stability of Surface Growth: The Effect of a Compliant Surrounding Medium

  2022cites this paper
• Tracking Mechanical Stress and Cell Migration with Inexpensive Polymer Thin‐Film Sensors

  2022cites this paper
• Advanced optical tweezers on cell manipulation and analysis

  2022cites this paper
• Effect of heterogeneous substrate adhesivity of follower cells on speed and tension profile of leader cells in primary keratocyte collective cell migration

  2022cites this paper
• Optimal Cargo Size for Active Diffusion of Biohybrid Microcarriers

  2022cites this paper
• Fidgetin-like 2 depletion enhances cell migration by regulating GEF-H1, RhoA, and FAK

  2022cites this paper
• Controlled propulsion of micro/nanomotors: operational mechanisms, motion manipulation and potential biomedical applications.

  2022cites this paper
• Self-Propelled Motion of an Oil Droplet Containing a Phospholipid and its Stability in Collectivity

  2022cites this paper
• Cortical tension regulates desmosomal morphogenesis

  2022cites this paper
• Measuring αβ T-Cell Receptor-Mediated Mechanosensing Using Optical Tweezers Combined with Fluorescence Imaging.

  2022cites this paper
• Nuclear size rectification: A potential new therapeutic approach to reduce metastasis in cancer

  2022cites this paper
• Transcriptome profiling of the early developmental stages in the giant mussel Choromytilus chorus exposed to delousing drugs.

  2022cites this paper
• Blebs—Formation, Regulation, Positioning, and Role in Amoeboid Cell Migration

  2022cites this paper
• Determination of protein–protein interactions at the single-molecule level using optical tweezers

  2022cites this paper
• Picking winners in cell-cell collisions: wetting, speed, and contact

  2022cites this paper
• Förster Resonance Energy Transfer-Based Single-Cell Imaging Reveals Piezo1-Induced Ca2+ Flux Mediates Membrane Ruffling and Cell Survival

  2022cites this paper
• Interplay between cell height variations and planar pulsations in epithelial monolayers

  2022cites this paper
• Dissipative DNA nanotechnology

  2022cites this paper
• Transcriptome analysis of inbreeding depression in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas

  2022cites this paper
• Migration and division in cell monolayers on substrates with topological defects

  2022cites this paper
• The Big Picture of Neurodegeneration: A Meta Study to Extract the Essential Evidence on Neurodegenerative Diseases in a Network-Based Approach

  2022cites this paper
• Management of invasive cells in soft biological tissues through modulated nonlinear excitations: Long-range effects

  2022cites this paper
• Physical Confinement and Cell Proximity Increase Cell Migration Rates and Invasiveness: A Mathematical Model of Cancer Cell Invasion through Flexible Channels

  2022cites this paper
• Biohybrid active matter -- the emergent properties of cell-mediated microtransport

  2021cites this paper
• A chemorepellent inhibits local Ras activation to inhibit pseudopod formation to bias cell movement away from the chemorepellent

  2021cites this paper
• Angiogenesis' effect overall on Health and Disease

  2021cites this paper
• DMNet: Dual-Stream Marker Guided Deep Network for Dense Cell Segmentation and Lineage Tracking

  2021cites this paper
• Pyk2 regulates cell-edge protrusion dynamics by interacting with Crk

  2021cites this paper
• Mechanics of developmental migration.

  2021cites this paper
• Mechanical Stimulation after Centrifuge-Free Nano-Electroporative Transfection Is Efficient and Maintains Long-Term T Cell Functionalities.

  2021cites this paper
• Actin-based force generation and cell adhesion in tissue morphogenesis.

  2021cites this paper
• A particle size threshold governs diffusion and segregation of PAR-3 during cell polarization

  2021cites this paper
• Cellular transport through nonlinear mechanical waves in fibrous and absorbing biological tissues

  2021cites this paper
• Altered regulation of cell migration in IRF6-mutated orofacial cleft patients-derived primary cells reveals a novel role of Rho GTPases in cleft/lip palate development.

  2021cites this paper
• Fluorescent Image Reconstruction for Fiber-based Force Sensing in Shape Controlled Cell Migration using Deep Learning

  2021cites this paper
• Correction for Ozkan-Aydin et al., Collective dynamics in entangled worm and robot blobs

  2021cites this paper
• Supracellular organization confers directionality and mechanical potency to migrating pairs of cardiopharyngeal progenitor cells

  2021cites this paper
• Altered Actin Dynamics in Cell Migration of GNE Mutant Cells

  2021cites this paper
• Robotic optical tweezers for cell biophysics

  2021cites this paper
• β-Hydroxybutyrate impairs neutrophil migration distance through activation of a protein kinase C and myosin light chain 2 signaling pathway in ketotic cows.

  2021cites this paper
• Membrane-MEDYAN: Simulating Deformable Vesicles Containing Complex Cytoskeletal Networks

  2021cites this paper
• Effect of vimentin on cell migration in collagen-coated microchannels: A mimetic physiological confined environment.

  2021cites this paper
• Bioimage Analysis and Cell Motility

  2021cites this paper
• Vesicle shape transformations driven by confined active filaments

  2021influential citation
• Collective dynamics in entangled worm and robot blobs

  2021cites this paper
• Dissociation Mechanisms of G-actin Subunits Govern Deformation Response of Actin Filament.

  2021cites this paper